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Matilda Joslyn Gage Website Biographical Dictionary Gage and the women who wrote about her have referred to many other women of accomplishment, many of whom are today quite obscure. We list here many of the women and pro-feminist men mentioned at this website with a brief biographical sketch about her/him. If you have information on people on whom I have no information, I'd like to include the information here. Send comments to Sunny at sunshine@pinn.net WCS is Woman, Church, and State Each entry is referenced. Complete citations can be found at the bottom of this page.

Achelis

In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "In an able article on ethnology, Dr. Th. Achelis says: 'The complete agreement of accounts of tribes bearing no relationship to one another no longer leaves it a matter of doubt that blood relationship through a common mother must take the place of the patriarchal family as the fundamental form of development.' "

1. Abigail Smith Adams (1744-1818)

   Letter writer, women's rights advocate, farmer, and patriot. Educated by her grandmother and by her own readings from the family library, Adams took almost complete responsibility for running the family farm while her husband, John (who would later become President of the United States), was away attending to his political interests. Probably Abigail's best known letter implored her husband to "Remember the Ladies" by improving their legal rights in the new country.

   To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, pp. 58-59 )

   References: Davidson, pp. 8-9

2. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (fl. 1490?)

   Agrippa argued the absolute equality of men and women on the grounds of religious, moral, and natural rights. Agrippa used some of the same arguments that Christian de Pizan, a woman, had used a century earlier although he did not credit the ideas to her. Like her, he also made a list of exemplary female worthies who had come before him. Published in 1529, Agrippa's work was translated into English as The Glory of Women (1652). Recently, this work has been reprinted as Declamations of Nobility (University of Chicago, 1996).

   In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "In 1509, Cornelius Agrippa, a great literary authority of his time, published a work of this character. Agrippa was not content with claiming woman's equality, but in a work of thirty chapters devoted himself to proving 'the superiority of woman.' "

   References: Lerner, p. 214

3. William Alexander (Lord Stirling, 1726 - 1783)

   Author of the 2 volume work The History of Women from Earliest Antiquity (1779) wherein he compiled a list of illustrious women. Born in New York City, Alexander served in the French and Indian War. In 1756 he went to England in part to press a claim to the earldom of Stirling before the House of Lords . With his claim rejected, Alexander returned to America in 1761. He enlisted as a colonel in a New Jersey regiment in November 1775. In 1776 he was promoted to brigadier general; as such he took part many major battles of the American Revolutionary War. Alexander was a founder and the first governor of King's College (now Columbia University)

   To quote in Preceding Causes

   References: Lerner, p. 326 footnote #43, "Alexander, William," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

4. Amazons

   Legendary warrior women who created a society devoid of men. According to legend, once a year the Amazon women would enter a neighboring town to copulate with the men to become pregnant. They would also leave their year-old boy children in the town for the townspeople to raise as their own.

   Fact or fiction? I can imagine that a group of women, women who had been abused, or women who weren't satisfied with their restricted lives in the company of men, or women who were lesbians, decided to form their own community. Such a community would require women to fill all necessary jobs including military ones. I think that they would become so notorious that legends about them -- embellished legends perhaps -- could survive for thousands of years. So, yes, in that sense, I believe that there were Amazons. But true or false, I sure do like the story.

   In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "The Amazons, of whom all nations give trace and to whose existence Humbold gave credence, had broken from domineering patriarchal rule, founding the first republic known under that system."

5. Margaret of Angouleme (also Marguerite de Navarre, Marguerite d'Angouleme, Queen of Navarre 1492-1549)

   Marguerite's parents, Louise de Savoie and Charles d'Alecon, raised her with the ideals of the Italian Renaissance and provided her with an excellent education. She had some knowledge of Latin and Italian and began to study Hebrew. She was interested in all aspects of philosophy. When Francis became king in 1515, Marguerite helped set the tone in the French court, encouraging gifted poets and supporting translations of classical works into French. Her first work Le Mirror de l'ame pecheresse (Mirror of the Sinful Soul 1531), was a religious tract that showed her adherence to the principles of sola fides and sola scriptura. Marguerite also wrote poems, dramas, and plays-- mostly of a religious nature. She is best known for Heptameron, a collection of 80 stories in the manner of Boccaccios's Decameron. Although Heptameron is not a feminist work, it does portray women in a sympathetic manner.

   In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "Margaret of Angouleme, the brilliant Queen of Navarre, was a voluminous writer, her Heptameron rising to the dignity of a French classic."

   References: Wilson, vol 2, pp. 903-904

6. Queen Anne (1665-1714)

   Queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1702-14), the last British sovereign of the house of Stuart. Faithful to her Protestant heritage, Anne supported her sister Mary and Mary's husband, William of Orange, during the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Becoming Queen upon William's death in 1702, Anne led England into a Golden Age of the arts and nearly opened the first institution of higher education for women in Europe. During Queen Anne's reign the kingdoms of England and Scotland were united (1707). Having no surviving children, Anne was succeeded by her German cousin, George, elector of Hannover, as King George I of Great Britain.

   To quote in Preceding Causes

   References: "Anne," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

7. Mathilde Anneke (1817-1884)

   German writer, feminist, Social Democrat, anti-slavery campaigner. Editor of the Neue Kölinische Zeitung (New Cologne Times), which she renamed the Frauen-Zeitung (Woman's Journal). After her husband's arrest following the unsuccessful 1848 revolution, she fled to America with her family. She immediately met Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and joined the women's movement. She is the author of numerous poems and several books. Her works include the play, Oithono (1842), and the anti-slavery novellas Die Sclaven-Aution (The Slave Auction 1862) and Gebrochene Ketten (Broken Chains, 1864).

   Widowed and in need of support, in 1865 Anneke opened the Milwaukee Tochter Institute (Milwaukee Girls School), a German-language school for girls. Winning praise from German language educators throughout the country, she operated the school alone for 18 years.

   In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 68), Gage wrote, "The active part women took in the Polish and German revolutions and in favor of the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies, all taught their lessons of woman's rights. Madam Mathilde Anneke, on the staff of her husband, with Hon. Carl Schurz, carried messages to and fro in the midst of danger on the battle-fields of Germany."

   References: Buck, entry for Anneke, Matilde Franziska
   Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 2, pp. 50-51

8. Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)

   Pioneer woman's rights leader. Educated in the school her father ran for his children and the children of his mill's employees, Anthony was raised on the Quaker ideal of the inherent equality of men and women. Early in life, she taught school but later joined the temperance movement. In 1852 she joined both the abolition and woman's rights movements. After the Civil War and with the help of Matilda Joslyn Gage and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Anthony formed the National Woman's Suffrage Association. The three also collaborated on writing the first 3 volumes of the History of Woman's Suffrage. Although she was interested in all areas of reform early in life, in her later years her sole interest was in woman's suffrage. Her speeches have been collected in Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: Correspondence, Writings, and Speeches (1981) edited by Kathleen Barry.

   for quote, see entry for Rachel G. Foster

   To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

   References: Davidson, p. 54

9. Mary Astell (1666 - 1731)

   First widely read, expressly feminist English woman writer. Her great feminist polemics, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1694) and A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, Part 2 (1697) advocated opening institutions of higher education to women where women could devote their lives to learning and teaching as an alternative to marriage. In Some Reflections on Marriage (1700), Astell analyzed marriage and methods of picking a suitable husband from a feminist perspective. She also published Letters Concerning the Love of God (1695), her correspondence with Rev. John Norris discussing how humankind owes one's love to God rather than his [sic] creatures; 3 politcal works, Moderation Truly Stated (1704), A Fair Way with Dissenters and Their Patrons (1704), and An Impartial Enquiry Into the Causes of Rebellion and Civil War (1704); and 2 religious works The Christian Religion as Profess'd By a Daughter of the Church (1705), Bart'lemy Fair, or, An Inquiry After Wit (1709).

   To quote in Preceding Causes

   References: Todd, pp. 17-20

10. Anne Austin

    Anne Austin (mother of 5 children), Mary Fischer (who had spent 2 years in an English prison for her Quaker beliefs), and Anne Hutchinson (who was banished from Massachusetts for her Quaker beliefs) were part of the Quaker circle which included Mary Dyer. Dyer had returned England from Boston (where she had emigrated in 1635). She meet and came under the influence of George Fox, the founder of the Quaker religion, at Swarthmore, the home of Judge and Margaret Askew Fell. (Askew Fell would marry Fox 16 years have Judge Fells death and would play a significant role in making the Quaker religion so hospitable to women's preaching (see her Women's Speaking Justified) Along with perhaps a dozen others, the little band set off for Boston and Gage tells us what happened when they arrived.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Mary Dyer, Biography of a Rebel Quaker, Mary Plimpton, Branden Publishing Co., Boston, 1994, p. 131, 136

11. Johann Jacob Bachofen

    Author of Myth, Religion and Mother Right (originally published as Das Mutterrecht: Eine Untersuchung Uber Die Gynaikokratie der Alten Welt Nach Ihrer Religiosen und der Rechtlichen Natur, 1861; reissued in translation 1967.) Bachofen was an early proponent of an early matriarchy where women originally had high status and inheritance followed the mother's line. Cited by Fredrick Engles as an authority on numerous occasions in The Origin of Family, Private Property and the State (1884).

    To quote in The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past

    References: The God Idea of the Ancients or Sex in Religion by Eliza Burt Gamble

12. Joanna Baille (1762-1851)

    Scottish poet and playwright. Welcomed into London literary society after being revealed as the author of the anonymous Plays on the Passions (1798, 1802, and 1812), Baille intended a her plays to be a series of works, one comedy and one tragedy, for each emotion. She was especially admired by Sir Walter Scott. Although her works today seem melodramatic, at the time, they were considered to contain striking treatments of the female character. Late in life, she took part in religious and philanthropic projects.

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Joanna Baille had been termed the woman Shakespeare."

    References: Parry, p. 47, Blain p. 50-51

    Herbert Bancroft

    In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "Marco Polo found similar customs [tracing descent through the mother] in his voyages of exploration; it is the same with the Indians of our continent, not alone of the Pacific coast, as Herbert Bancroft shows, but Eastern writers upon Indian customs note the same thing. "

13. 

    Lemme Barkeloo (Gage spelled it incorrectly as Barkaloo)

    In 1869, the Washington University School of Law admited its first female students, Phoebe Couzins and Lemma Barkeloo. Couzins became the university's and the law school's first female graduate in 1871. Missouri's first woman lawyer, Barkaloo attended the law school for one year, but chose to take the bar exam in 1870 without finishing law school. In 1870, M. Lemma Barkeloo became the first woman lawyer in St. Louis and in Missouri. She was the first woman trial lawyer in America, and the first woman lawyer to try a case in federal court. She died a few months later of typhoid fever.

    In her speech, "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871), Gage writes, "Missouri recently lost by death her first woman lawyer, Miss Lemme Barkaloo , a native of your neighboring city of Brooklyn."

    References: Breaking the Barriers: The St. Louis Legacy of Women in Law 1869-1969
    Lemma Barkeloo

14. Clara Barton (1821-1912)

    Teacher, founder of New Jersey's first "free" school, clerk for the patent office. During the Civil War, Barton witnessed the horrors of the battlefield at the Battle of Bull Run. Determined to help the wounded soldiers, she began raising money for medical supplies. Eventually, her efforts lead to the founding of the American Red Cross. Her autobiography Story of My Life was published in 1907.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Blain, p. 68-69

    Ansel Bascom

    In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote, "Elizabeth and Mary McClintock, and Mrs. Stanton, each read a well written speech, Martha Wright read some satirical articles she had published in the daily papers answering the diatribes on woman's sphere, Ansel Bascom, who had been a member of the Constitutional Convention, recently held in Albany, spoke at length on the property bill for married women, just passed the Legislature, and the discussion on woman's rights in that convention. Samuel Tillman, a young student of law, read a series of the most exasperating statutes for women, from English and American Jurists, all reflecting the tender mercies of men towards their wives, in taking care of their property and protecting them in their civil rights. "

    To Quote in the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box

15. M. Henri Baudrillart (1821-1892)

    Author of Histoire du luxe prive et public depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a nos jours, Paris, Hachette, 1878-80, 4 vols, a comprehensive history of luxury in all its historical, economic, social, moral and esthetical aspects. Professor at the 'College de France' and chief editor of the 'Journal des economistes', Baudrillart is credited with an important oeuvre connected with political economy, economic history and statistics, valuable for its vast enumeration of facts, though he has been criticized for his moral preoccupations.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "A paper in the Revue des Deux Mondes, a few years since, by M. Henri Baudrillart, upon the "Emancipation of Woman," recalls the fact that for nearly four hundred years, men, too, have been ardent believers in equal rights for woman."

    References: I got this off the web somewhere - a used books seller who was trying to sell one of Baudrillarts works. Sorry, I forgot to record where.

16. Princess Beatrice

    Daughter of Queen Victoria I of England, Princess Beatrice Mary Victoria was born in 1857. Her nickname in the family was "Baby." She married Prince Henry of Battenberg in 1885, despite Queen Victoria's disapproval of the match. Beatrice and Henry had four children, including Victoria Eugenie, who became the queen of Spain. Beatrice died in 1944. Intended to be her mother's spinster companion, Beatrice didn't marry until she was 28 and continued to live in England at Victoria's beck and call.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Victoria

17. Henry Ward Beecher (1813-1887)

    The son of the early 19th century revivalist preacher Lyman Beecher, Henry was himself a clergyman, an abolitionist, a woman's suffragist, a famed orator. Henry was brother to the abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe who wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852.

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    Reference: Pitts Theology Library Archives and Manuscript Dept. Beecher, Henry Ward (1813-1887)

18. Antoinette L. Brown Blackwell (1815-1921)

    In 1853, Brown became the first US woman to be ordained to the ministry. In addition to working in church ministry, she was a woman's rights activist, abolitionist, temperance worker, prison reformer, and anti-poverty worker. She wrote 11 books, 9 on religious and philosophical issues and 2 novels. She tried to reconcile Christianity and woman's rights. Her works include: Shadows of our Social System (1856), Studies in General Science (1869), The Sexes Throughout Nature (1875), and The Philosophy of Individuality (1893).

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67), Gage wrote, "The same year [1847] Antoinette L. Brown, then a student at Oberlin College, Ohio, the first institution that made the experiment of co-education, delivered her first speech on temperance in several places in Ohio, and on Woman's Rights, in the Baptist church at Henrietta, N.Y."

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    References: Blain, p. 101

19. Elizabeth Blackwell (1700?-1758)

    Naturalist. To raise funds to release her husband, Alexander, from debtors prison, Blackwell published her 2 volume herbal in 1737 and 1739. Blackwell went on to spend 4 years completing A Curious Herbal containing Five Hundred Cuts of the most useful Plants which are now used in the Practice of Physicks. Based on plants in the botanical gardens at Chelsea, Blackwell made copper engravings and colored all 500 plates herself. Curious Herbals became one of the most popular herbals of the century. After her husband's death, Blackwell went on to study obstetrics with William Smellie. She became a wealthy and successful general practitioner, which had a much higher status (and corresponding larger fees) than midwifery.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63), Gage wrote, "In 1736, the first medical botany was given to the world by Elizabeth Blackwell, a woman physician, whom the persecutions of her male compeers had cast into jail for debt. As Bunyan prepared his "Pilgrim's Progress" between prison walls, so did Elizabeth Blackwell, no-wise disheartened, prepare her valuable aid to medical science under the same conditions."

    To reference in WCS

    References: Todd (2), p. 48; Alic, p. 100

20. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910)

    Realizing that teaching school and becoming a wife and a mother was not for her, Blackwell decided to become a female doctor. The only school in the country which would accept a woman was Geneva College, just a few miles from Seneca Falls, NY. When Blackwell arrived on campus, she discovered that she had been admitted as a joke - no one believed that she would actually show up. Nonetheless, overcoming the hostility of her teachers and fellow students, Blackwell graduated in 1849 at the head of her class - the first woman ever to be graduated with a medical degree any where in the modern world. After post-graduate study in Paris (where she met Florence Nightengale), Blackwell returned to America and began to set up practice in 1851. All of the city's hospitals and clinics were closed to her, she received threatening letters, and she could not find any one who would even rent rooms to her. Only her Quaker friends brought her patients and she finally opened a clinic in 1853 where she mostly served poor women. Joined by her sister and another recent graduate, Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, Blackwell founded her own hospital, the New York Infirmary for Women and Children. During the Civil War, Blackwell trained nurses for wartime hospital work. In 1868, she opened a college in conjunction with her hospital, a college devoted to educating women to become doctors. Although she had become an American citizen in 1849, Blackwell returned to England permanently in 1869. In 1875, Blackwell became professor of gynecology at the new London School of Medicine, a position she held until 1907. She wrote two controversial books advocating sex education, as well as her autobiography, Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women (1895).

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    To another quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    References: Weatherford, p. 39-40

21. Lillie Devereaux Blake (1833-1913)

    Professional journalist and novelist, woman's rights activist, suffragist. In addition to over 500 short stories, articles, speeches, and lectures, Blake wrote 5 books: Southwold (1858), Rockford; or, Sunshine and Storm (1863), Forced Vows; or, A Revengeful Woman's Fate (1870), Woman and Paganism in Christianity, and Fettered for Life, or Her Lord and Master (1874). Blake supported many aspects of the woman's movement, including the inclusion of women from Columbia University. Blake was elected President of the New York State Suffrage Association in 1879 which she turned into a powerful organization. Blake's 4 lecture response to the misogynist lecture by the Rev. Morgan Dix was printed as Woman's Place Today (1881). Blake was also a contributor to Elizabeth Cady Stanton's The Woman's Bible (1895?).

    for quote, see entry for Rachel G. Foster

    To reference in WCS

    References: Gaylor, p. 243-245

22. Nevada M. Bloomer

    Given the right to vote by the Washington territorial legislature in 1883, women were encouraged when the statute was upheld in an 1884 Territorial Supreme Court case. On a second challenge, however, the court invalidated the statute in 1887. The issue was brought again to the Territorial Supreme Court by Mrs. Nevada Bloomer, who had been denied the right to vote in a regular municipal election in the city of Spokane Falls. Bloomer v. Todd, 3 Wash. Terr. 599 (1888). Mrs. Bloomer's husband owned a saloon, and John Todd, one of the defendant election judges, was a beer bottler who supplied Bloomer. Possibly contrived by saloon owners and suppliers to invalidate women's suffrage for fear of prohibition, the court struck down the statute, holding that Congress must have intended to limit the franchise to male citizens, and that the territorial legislature had no power to enfranchise women, ending women's suffrage in Washington Territory. Women did not win the right to vote in Washington until 1910 when the people approved the fifth amendment to the Washington State Constitution.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: John P. Hoyt and Women's Suffrage

23. Boadicea (also spelled Boudicca) 61 A. D.

    Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, lead a revolt against the Roman invaders of England. After her husband Prasutagus' death, the Roman invaders plundered his territory in spite of his will which left his realm to his daughters and the Roman emperor. Helpless, Boudicca herself was whipped and forced to watch the Roman soldiers rape her daughters. In revenge, she raised up an army against the roman invaders. Boudicca's forces resoundingly defeated the Roman troops at Camulodonum and virtually annihilated the IX Hispania before heading to London. Fearing the Iceni army, the Roman commander sacrificed London itself before the ride turned against the Iceni. Eventually Boudicca was defeated, but not captured. She and her daughters are believed to have taken poison to avoid capture and ritual execution at Rome.

    To reference in WCS

    View a picture of a statue of her in her chariot and read the words of the Roman historian Tacitus at Boudicea

24. Marie Anne Victorine Boivin nee Gillain (1773-1847)

    Boivin was one of the foremost women medical researchers of the nineteenth century. She made original anatomical discoveries, invented the vaginal speculum for examining the womb, and was one of the first to use a stethoscope to listen to a fetal heartbeat. Her medical book, Memoire de l'art accouchements (1812), was translated into several European languages. Boivin translated medical works from English. Her most important work, a medical book on the uterus, was used as a text book for many years. She was director of several hospitals, received the Order of Merit from the King of Prussia, and was awarded an honorary MD from the University of Marbourg in 1827.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    References: Alic, p. 102

25. Rosa Bonheur (1822-1899)

    First female French artist to receive the Cross of the French Legion of Honor (1865). Her best-known works are The Horse Fair (1853-1855) and Weaning the Calves (1887), both in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Bonheur ran her father's art school after he died in 1849. She was given governmental permission to cross-dress, and made animal studies in markets and fairs while dressed as a man. In 1894 she became the first woman to receive the Grand Cross of the French Legion of Honor.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    References: Greenspan, p. 246; "Bonheur, Rosa," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.

26. Myra Colby Bradwell (1831-1894) America's first "Lady Lawyer"

    Plaintiff in the case of Bradwell v. Illinois , possibly the most outrageous and heinous case involving women's rights in America, a case which *should be* as infamous for women as the Dred Scott case is for Blacks, Bradwell had a sterling professional reputation: she established the extremely influential and well-regarded Chicago Legal News which carried information about laws, ordinances and court opinions admissible as evidence in court in 1868 and passed the Illinois Bar Exam with high honors in 1869, yet was denied admission to the Bar, even upon appeal to the Illinois state Supreme Court, because of her Sex. Finally reaching the US Supreme Court, the case went against Bradwell with the court ruling that since a woman did not have a legal existence separate from her husband, and, consequently, could not sign contracts, the state of Illinois was allowed to refuse all women, even single women, access to the bar. By claiming that women had no separate legal existence from their husbands, women were denied the right to as much as run away from an abusive husband, for, like a slave, she was guilty of stealing her services from her husband. Further women had no right to control their own wages. By claiming that women had no legal right to sign contracts, the court held that women had no property rights, even to own the clothes on her own back, since a person often had to sign a contract to hold property. The effects of Bradwell v Illinois was not overturned until well into the 1970s through a series of ground-breaking lawsuits.

    Continuing her career in the legal profession and using her professional training, Bradwell published and edited her legal journal, using its pages and power to advocate for women's rights, speaking out for women's suffrage, and removal of property ownership rights restrictions on women. She was permitted to run her business only by a special charter allowing a married woman to do so. Bradwell was admitted to the United States Supreme Court and Illinois Supreme Court in 1892, retroactive to her initial application in 1869.

    In 1869 Bradwell helped created Chicago's first women's suffrage convention.

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    References:

    Law, Gender, & Injustice: A Legal History of U.S. Women , Joan Hoff, New York University Press, 1991
    National Women's Hall of Fame: Myra Bradwell
    

27. Martha Bradstreet

    According to the website cited below: "Women not under coverture could sue and be sued. At least one woman, Martha Bradstreet of Utica, spent so much time in the courts she was practically a lawyer. Contemporaries called her "a host in herself." Because she was "a strenuous and persevering claimant of a large part of the soil of Utica," she acquired "by study a mastery of the law of real estate." "She harassed numbers of its citizens with suits at law and besieged the courts with her causes," antiquarian Moses Bagg asserted.123 She started so many suits that she had fill-in-the-blank forms created for her own use!124 Other women started suits too".

    "123 Moses Bagg, Memorial History of Utica, N.Y. (Syracuse: D. Mason & Co., 1892).
    124 One such survives in Folder 62 of the Abraham Van Vechten Papers at the New York State Library in Albany, New York. The forms are for the "District Court of the United State of American For the Northern District of New York." Martha Bradstreet of Utica "who is an Alien, and a Subject of the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" deserves one quarter of 20 houses, 20 warehouses, etc."

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67), Gage wrote, "At even an earlier day [before Elizabeth Wilson published her work], Martha Bradstreet, of Utica, plead her own case in the courts of New York, continuing her contest for many years. "

    Reference: Women and Banking in Early America

28. Fredrika Bremer (1801-1865)

    Swedish prose writer. Considered the founder of the Swedish novel, Bremer wrote about family life and woman's circumstances. Her works include: Techningar utur Hvardagslifvet (Scenes from Every Day Life 1828), Presidentens Döttar (The President's Daughter 1834), Grannarna (The Neighbors 1837), Hemmet (The Home 1839) and En Dagbok (A Diary 1843). In her most famous work, Hertha (1856), she expressed her attitudes about women in Sweden and initiated discussion of the woman question there.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Buck, entry for Bremer, Fredricka

29. Mrs. Brevard

    Widow Brevard was a staunch American during the Revolutionary War: 7 of her sons fought for independence. In retaliation, the British plundered, then burned, her farm. On May 19, 1775, independence was first proclaimed in Charlotte, the county seat of her home county of Mecklenburg [sic] (in one of the Carolinas). Her husband immediately joined the army as a surgeon, was taken prisoner in the surrender of Charleston, was released, and succumbed to fever a short time later.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 59)

    References: Ellet, vol 1, p. 300-302

30. Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855)

    In her own time, the best known of the three Bronte sisters and author of the classics of English literature Jane Eyre (1847), Shirley (1849), Villette (1853), and The Professor (1857).

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Todd, p. 93-95

31. Rev. Olympia Brown (1835-1926)

    A graduate of Antioch College in 1860 and Universalist Theological School in 1863, Brown was ordained the same year to become one of a handful of women ministers in the United States. Soon becoming active in the national women's suffrage movement, Brown unsuccessfully attempted to broaden the Fourteenth Amendment to include guarantees of civil rights for women as well as blacks. Moving to Wisconsin in 1878 to take charge of a church in Racine, Brown quickly rose to leadership within the Wisconsin Women's Suffrage Association (WWSA), continuing to be active in the women's movement until her death in 1926.

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    Reference:Wisconsin's Legal History Olympia Brown

32. Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861)

    Writer and poet whose works include The Battle of Marathon (1820), (1826), Prometheus Bound. . . and Miscellaneous Poems (1833), The Seraphim and Other Poems (1838), Poems (2 vol, 1844), Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850), Casa Guidi Windows (1851), (1856), Poems Before Congress (1860), and Last Poems (1862- published posthumously). Possibly her best known work, the semi-autobiographical Aurora Leigh, is a novel in verse with a strong polemical statement about the roles of women in society.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Todd, p. 104-107

    Buckle

    In Lecky in History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe in footnote 2:30 refers to Buckle's History of Civilization vol 1 (Lecky spells it Civilisation). I don't know if this is the work or the person Gage is referring to.

    To * reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

33. Josephine E. Butler

    Initially active in the movement to "reform prostitutes" (read that as provide them food, housing, and training for a new career), Butler's involvement in the world of Victorian prostitution deepened as time progressed. Soon she helped to prevent the extension of the notorious British Contagious Diseases Acts (CDA) to the length and breadth of England. (The notorious British Contagious Diseases Acts which permitted "authorities" (police) to detain any woman around six military installations as a suspected prostitute. Even without a warrant or probable cause (the word of a jealous, or frustrated, male suitor was enough) the victim could be held up to three months in prison for refusing to be medically examined by a police physician for signs of venereal disease. If a woman signed the papers permitting the police physician to examine her, she was acknowledging that she would return every 3 months for further examinations since it was assumed that only prostitutes would permit themselves to be examined. Similar laws were in effect throughout much of the continent, ensuring that the sons of the wealthy continued to have cheap, unrestrained sexual access to the daughters of the poor even in democratic, liberty loving states.) Eventually, Butler helped to repeal the British CDA, then helped to form an international organization for repealing similar laws throughout Europe, becoming a major force in opposition to organized prostitution and trafficking in women.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: A Singular Iniquity: The Campaigns of Josephine Butler, Glen Petrie, Viking Press: New York, 1971

    E. W. Capron

    In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote,"James Mott, tall and dignified, in Quaker costume was called to the chair, Mary McClintock was appointed Secretary, Fredrick Douglass, Samuel Tillman, Ansel Bascom, E. W. Capron, and Thomas McClintock, took part throughout in the discussions."

34. The Misses Carey: Alice Cary (1820-1871) and Phoebe Cary (1824-1871)

    Authors. Alice's first published work appeared as a poem in the Sentinel, a Cincinnati Universalist newspaper, when she was 18. Phoebe's first work was published shortly thereafter. Edgar Allan Poe, Horace Greeley, John Greenleaf Whittier, and Rufus W. Griswold recommended publication of their first book, Poems of Alice and Phoebe Carey in 1850. The sisters became regular contributors to various periodicals and published several other books, including short stories, poems, and novels.

    References: McHenry, p. 65-66

35. Mary Carpenter (1807-1877)

    British social reformer, educator. In 1846, Carpenter opened a school for working class children. She opened a new style reformatory for boys in 1852 and one for girls in 1854.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Greenspan, p. 232, 238

36. Anna Ella Carroll

    Carroll planned the Tennessee Campaign that was successfully used by General US Grant to win the war in the west for the Union troops. Carroll's contribution to the war effort was a closely guarded secret: military leaders feared that the troops would become dispirited if they knew a woman had planned the highly successful Tennessee campaign.

    Bones Without Meat, a play by Andrew Conan Jones based on 1862 Congressional Testimony regarding a petition to award credit of the Tennessee Campaign to Major-Generals Hallack and Grant. The Congressional documents, reproduced as part of this play, loudly proclaim that Anna Ella Carroll planned the campaign and convinced the military powers-that-were to accept her plan.

    Sign a petition to Senate Minority Leader Tom Daschle to have Anna Ella Carroll receive her rightful place in history.

    References: Wagner, p. 2-3

37. Catherine II (the Great, Empress of Russia 1729-1796)

    Politically astute enough to seize the throne from her husband, to keep it, and to rule Russia wisely, Catherine, an enlightened despot, sought to modernize Russia materially, intellectually, and politically. She took deep interest in the history, language, literature, and religion of her adopted land. Her writings included the law, letters (over 10,00 are known to have survived), translations, memoirs, history, criticism, comedy, comic operas, drama, fables, collections of proverbs, satire.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 60-61), Gage wrote, "In Russia, Catherine II, the absolute and responsible ruler of that vast nation, gave utterance to views, of which, says La Harpe, the revolutionists of France and America fondly thought themselves the originators. She caused her grandchildren to be educated into the most liberal ideas, and Russia was at one time the only country in Europe where political refugees could find safety. To Catherine, Russia is indebted for the first proposition to enfranchise the serfs, but meeting strong opposition she was obliged to relinquish this idea, which was carried to fruition by her great-grandson, Alexander."

    References: Wilson, vol 1, p. 224-226

    Madam La Chapelle

    To reference in WCS

    M. Chaussure

    To reference in WCS

38. Lydia Maria Child (1802-1880)

    Novelist, short story writer, and abolitionist. Today, Child is best remembered for her anti-racism and abolitionist work. Her works include: Hobomok (1824), a novel where she portrayed a miscegenation between a Puritan woman and a Native American; The Rebel (1825), another novel; Juvenile Miscellany (1826), the first children's magazine; The Frugal Housewife (1829), an early woman's magazine; the Ladies Family Library a 5 volume set that included historical accounts of early feminists and the 2 volume work The History of the Condition of Women, in Various Ages and Nations (1832-1835). Acclaimed as the foremost woman writer of her time, she was the second woman to be granted access to the Boston Athenaeum. Her Appeal in Favor of That Class of Americans Called Africans (1833) was one of the first books to call for immediate emancipation of slaves. Because of Appeal, she was denied access to the Athenaeum and was forced to give up editorship of the Juvenile Miscellany. Opportunity knocked and Child became editor of National Anti-Slavery Standard. Her essays from the Standard were collected in Letters from New York (1843). She continued to write essays, edit magazines and books, and write new books until her death. Other works include The Freedman's Book (1865), A Romance of the Republic (1867), and An Appeal for the Indians (1868).

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64 ), Gage wrote, "In 1832, Lydia Maria Child published her "History of Woman," which was the first American storehouse of information upon the whole question, and undoubtedly increased the agitation."

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

    References: Davidson, p. 177

39. Christine of Pisa (should be Christine de Pizan, 1364/5 - 1434)

    A prolific writer (author of at least 20 books), de Pizan (the correct spelling of her name since she was from Pizanno, not Pisa) is the first European woman known to have earned her living by the pen. She wrote in many genres including: poetry, prose, novels, handbooks, letters, and non-fiction works on a topics ranging from history, biography, and military fortifications to women. Indeed, de Pizan is considered to have begun discussion of the "woman question" on the continent. Her two books on women Le Livre La Cite des Dames (The Book of the City of Ladies 1405) and Le Tresor de la Cite des Dames (The Treasury of the City of Ladies 1405) are feminist classics. Many historians date the beginning of the woman's movement from her publication of The Book of the City of Ladies 1405.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 54-55 ), Gage wrote, "The revival of learning had its influence upon woman, and we find in the early part of the fourteenth century a decided tendency toward a recognition of her equality. Christine of Pisa, the most eminent woman of this period, supported a family of six persons by her pen, taking high ground on the conservation of morals in opposition to the general licentious spirit of the age."

    To reference in WCS

    References: Buck, entry for Christine de Pisan

40. Circe

    A sorceress, daughter of the sun god Helios and the sea nymph Perse, Circe was able to turn people into beasts. When Greek hero Odysseus visited her island with his companions, she turned the companions into swine. The god Hermes helped make Odysseus immune to Circe's enchantments, and Odysseus forced her to restore his companions. Circe fell in love with Odysseus and helped him travel home safely.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Circe

41. Clara B. Colby

    Arriving in Beatrice, Nebraska in 1872, Clara's husband Leonard with his law partner opened a law office and began promoting real estate ventures. Meanwhile, Clara started a public library and community theater, and in 1877 she introduced Elizabeth Cady Stanton to the area and thereafter became an important contributor to the Woman's Suffrage Movement. Beginning in 1883, Clara owned, operated, and edited the Nebraska newspaper, Women's Tribune, which provided isolated Midwestern readers with news of the national women's suffrage movement for 26 years. She published news of Congressional debates concerning women and children, lectured on behalf of women's voting rights in western states, was a close friend of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony and served as president of the Nebraska Suffrage Association. She also contributed to Elizabeth Cady Stanton's The Woman's Bible.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Clara Bewick Colby
    For more information, the website directs us to see: E. Claire Jerry. "Clara Bewick Colby and The Woman's Tribune: Strategies of a Free Lance Movement Leader." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1986.

42. Jennie Collins (1828-1887)

    Born of humble parentage, Collins began her career as a domestic, then as a tailor, eventually doing volunteer work in a Boston military hospitals during the (Civil) War. Self-educated, she established a school for soldiers' children.

    Her interest in social reform awakened, after the war, she became involved in the New England Labor Reform League and the Working Women's League of Boston. Her strong speeches during the Cocheco mill strike brought her to the attention of S. B. Anthony who asked her to speak at the National Woman Suffrage Convention in 1870.

    Not an ardent militant at heart, she returned to Boston in 1870 where she opened a woman's center, Boffin's Bower, where women could find food, clothing, shelter (if needed), an evenings entertainment, and employment.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 1, pp. 362-363

43. Marie Jean Antoine Nicholas de Caritat, Marquis de Condorcet (1743-94)

    French philosopher, political leader, and mathematician. Like Mary Wollstonecraft, Condorcet used natural-law and other Enlightenment theories to argue for the equality of the sexes. Educated at Jesuit schools and at the Collège de Navarre, Paris, a member of the Académie des Sciences (1769), secretary of the Académie des Sciences (1777), and member of the French Academy (1782), his Essai sur les assemblees provenciales (Essay ?? Provencial Assemblies, 1787) clearly "demanded the right, for a woman who held property, to have a seat in the assemblies." Basing his demand for the political equality of men and women on their common ability to reason and to learn, his 1790 "Essai sur l'admission des femmes as droit de cite" is a rousing manifesto demanding the political equality of women and men and a blistering condemnation of men who are prejudiced against women. A supporter of the French Revolution, and one of the handful of leading feminists of the Revolution, Condorcet became involved in politics, was elected to the Legislative Assembly, and in 1792 became president of that chamber. Perhaps his greatest legislative contribution was the plan for the French educational system, which was subsequently adopted and has since been maintained. During the course of the Revolution, he opposed the excesses used against the moderate Girondists, and with them was proscribed during the Reign of Terror of 1793. He fled, and while in hiding he wrote his most important work. Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (Sketch of the Intellectual Progress of Mankind, 1795). In this work he outlined the progress of the human race through nine stages, beginning with the primitive. He also outlined the concept of a tenth stage in which, largely through education, human perfection might be attained. Believing that his asylum had become unsafe, Condorcet attempted to escape. He was discovered in the village of Clamart, near Paris, and imprisoned; the following day he was found dead.

    On pages 335-336 of The Moral History of Women, one of Gage's frequent references, Ernest Legouve quotes Condorcet: " "In the name of what principle, in the name of what right," asks Condorcet, "do we in a republican state, exclude women from public duties? I cannot understand it. The phrase National Representation signifies the representation of the nation. Do women, then, constitute no part of the nation? This assembly meets for the purpose of defining and maintaining the rights of the French nation. Do women constitute no part of the French nation? With men the right of electing and being elected rests solely on the condition that they shall be intelligent and free beings. Are women not free and intelligent beings? The only disqualifications for this right are a sentence of corporal or ignominious punishment, and minority. Have all the women then been in the clutches of the public prosecutor? and can they not read in our laws that 'Every individual of either sex, twenty-one years old, is of age?' If you argue the physical weakness of women, then should every representative be summoned before a medical jury, and all those rejected who have the gout every winter. If you object to women on the score of their deficient instruction, their lack of political aptitude, it seems to me that there are many representatives who might be dispensed with on the same ground. The more we interrogate common sense and republican principles, the less just cause do we find for excluding women from politics. Even the leading objection, which is in everybody's mouth -- the argument that claims that to open a political career to women is to separate them from the fam8ily -- has only an apparent weight. For, in the first place, it does not apply to the world of women who have never been wives, or who are no longer such; and moreover, if it is conclusive, we must, for the same reason, prohibit women from all manufacturing or commercial employments, for these positions debar thousands of them from family duties, while political offices do not employ a hundred in all France. Finally, an illustrious woman [Olympe de Gouges] dismisses the question with these proud words: 'Woman has the same right to ascend the tribune that she has to mount the scaffold.' " "Journal de la Societe, of 1789, No. 5, July, 1790

    For Quote, see entry for Charolette Corday

    References: Hoff, p. 97; Spencer p. 222, 408, "Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicholas de Caritat, Marquis de," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

    Ernest Legouve, The Moral History of Women, Rudd and Carleton, Paris, 1860

44. Helena Lucretia Corano (1646 - 1684)

    On June 25, 1678 Elena Lucrezia (alternate spelling) Cornaro Piscopia became the first woman in the western world to earn a doctorate in any field from any university: her doctorate was in Philosophy since the University of Padua did not feel that they could grant a doctorate of theology to a woman even though she was eminently well qualified for the title. In addition to speaking both Latin and Greek fluently, Elena mastered Hebrew, Spanish, French, and Arabic. A student of the sciences as well as of languages, she studied mathematics and astronomy in addition to philosophy and theology. A musician, Elena mastered the harpsichord, the clavichord, the harp, and the violin. Her mastery of musical instruments was crowned by the music she composed.

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Helena Lucretia Corano, in the seventeenth century, was of such rare scientific attainments, that the most illustrious persons in passing through Venice, were more anxious to see her than all the curiosities of the city; she was made a doctor, receiving the title of Unalterable."

    References: from a Paper written by Sarah Thieling , Class of 1999 (Agnes Scott College). Thieling gives as her references:
    1.Forbush, Gabriell E. "Lost Women." MS. vol. 3, no. 56, Jan. 1975, p.56 compiled by Judith Wilson.
    2.Fusco, Nicola. Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia: 1646-1684. Pittsburgh: The United States Committee for the Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia Tercentenary. 1975. Limited First Edition.
    3.Pace. E. A. "Cornaro." New Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4, 1967.
    4.Remiddi. Marcia. "A Woman of High Degree." Unesco Courier, Vol. 31, July 1978, 12-13.
    

45. Hannah Lee Corbin (1729- )

    Widowed at age 34 (32 in Claghorn), her husband's will stipulated that she should forfeit her land if she remarried. Consequently, her lover moved in with her without benefit of marriage. They had two children and were well respected by the community. An early feminist, Corbin protested loudly that she was taxed but not allowed to vote. Although widows and spinsters who possessed sufficient property were allowed to vote in some states at the time of the revolution, Corbin was ignorant of that fact. Complaining to her better-known brother, Richard Henry Lee, Corbin asked him to work with his fellow revolutionaries to enfranchise women in the state of Virginia. Lee indicated that he supported such a measure, but that it was unnecessary since women already had "as legal a right to vote as any other person." Virginia rescinded women's right to vote shortly after the Constitution was adopted. Corbin supplied provisions for the American army.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 57), Gage wrote, "Among the women who manifested deep political insight, were Mercy Otis Warren, Abigail Smith Adams, and Hannah Lee Corbin; all closely related to the foremost men of the Revolution. "

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 59)

    References: Bernikow, p.9; Hoff, p. 92; and Claghorn, p. 55

46. Marie Anne Charolette Corday d'Armont (1768-1793)

    French patriot and assassin of the French revolutionist Jean Paul Marat. Convent educated and sympathetic to the moderates, or Girondists, in the French Revolution, she decided to kill Marat, a supporter of the radical Jacobins, whom she held responsible for the Reign of Terror. She went to Paris on July 13, 1793, gained admittance to Marat's house on the pretext of disclosing to him the names of Girondists in the city of Caen, and stabbed him to death while he was in his bath. Captured by Marat's friends before she could escape and condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, she was guillotined on July 17. Her deed was portrayed by the French artist Jacques Louis David in the famous painting Death of Marat

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 61), Gage wrote, "The beautiful Charolette Corday sealed with her life her belief in liberty, while Sophia Lapierre barely escaped the same fate; though two men, Sieyes and Condorcet, in the midst of the French Revolution, proposed the recognition of woman's political rights."

    To reference in WCS

    References: "Corday, Charlotte," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.

47. Mme Angelique Marguerite le Boursier du Coudray (1712-1789)

    Midwife, author of a textbook on gynecology, appointed by Louis XV to teach obstetrics at hospitals throughout France, popularized a teaching method where mannequins were used to demonstrate delivery methods.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    References: Alic, p. 201, footnote 4

    Mrs. Cowper

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Mrs. Cowper was spoken of by Montague as standing at the head of all that is called learned, and that every critic veiled his bonnet at her superior judgment."

    Mrs. A. L. Cox

    19th century abolitionist

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

48. Mary Cunity (1610-1664)

    A noted astronomer who spent 20 years revising Johannes Kepler's Rudolphine Tables useful for calculating planetary positions. She wrote this work in Latin although she was equally proficient in hebrew, Greek, and several other languages. She was also a noted writer, poet, and artist. (Golemba, p. 14, entry for Maria Cunitz)

    In her speech at the 1852 Syracuse National Convention, Gage writes, "Mary Cunity, of Silesia, in the sixteenth century, was one of the most able astronomers of her time, forming astronomical tables that acquired for her a great reputation."

    References: Golemba, p. 14

49. Charolette Cushman (1816--1876) (1816--1876)

    One of the first major native-born US actresses, she began as an opera singer but turned to acting after she overstrained her voice.

    References: from The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia at www.biography.com

50. Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis (1813-1876)

    Raised by a highly religious aunt after being orphaned at age seven, Davis eventually ran away from home and married Frances Wright, a wealthy local merchant, in 1833. In 1840 Wright began collecting women's signatures on a petition in support of the New York "Married Woman's Property Rights Bill." Widowed in 1845, Davis was lecturing to women about women's anatomy and physiology using a human model, an extremely controversial undertaking. Married in 1849 to the like-minded -- and soon to be Congressman -- Thomas Davis, Paulina Davis organized the 1850 first national Worcester Woman's Rights Convention and served as Vice-President of the 1852 Syracuse National (Women's Rights) Convention. The wealthy Davis used some of her funds to publish the pro-suffrage journal, The Una (1853). Staunch supporter of Anthony and Stanton after the split in the woman's rights movement following the Civil War, in 1868 Davis co-founded the New England Woman Suffrage Association and the Rhode Island Woman Suffrage Association. Thomas Davis carried on his wife's work for 20 years after her death.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    To another quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    References: Stanton, p. 118n; Spender, p. 374; Suhl, pp. 59, 242; Edgerly, p. 308

51. De Costa

    For quote, see entry for Count Segur

    Comment: In his History of Women (1782) William Alexander writes: "Much has already been said and wrote in this adulatory strain: but Hilario da Costa, a monk, resolving to exceed all who had gone before him, published two quarto volumes, of eight hundred pages each; containing, according to his account, the panegyrics of all the women of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, who had distinguished themselves by any remarkable talents or virtues. But as if no valuable talent, nor any virtue could exist without the pale of the catholic church, the partial ecclesiastic passed in silence over every woman of other principles; and while he loudly praised the virtues of Mary queen [sic] of England, whose memory succeeding ages have held in contempt; of her sister, whom her country still remembers with gratitude, he made no mention. The eulogies of this monk amount to one hundred and seventy. But who, in this delusory world, can ensure to himself the summit of greatness or of fame? The voluminous labours of our monk were soon after greatly surpassed by Paul de Ribera, who was delivered of a monstrous work, which he called "The Triumphs and heroic Enterprizes of Eight Hundred Women." "

52. Daniel Defoe (1660?-1731)

    English novelist, journalist, social thinker, political commentator, and writer. Defoe was a prolific author, producing more than 500 books, pamphlets, and tracts. Crediting Mary Astell with the idea, in "Essay Upon Projects" (1697), Defoe advanced the idea of education for women. Today, Defoe is best remembered for his novels, The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1719) and The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders (1722).

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "The seventeenth century gave birth to many essays and books of a like character, not confined to the laity, as several friars wrote upon the same subject. In 1696, Daniel De Foe wished to have an institute founded for the better education of young women. He said: 'We reproach the sex every day for folly and impertinence, while I am confident had they the advantages of education equal to us, they would be guilty of less than ourselves.' "

    References: "Defoe, Daniel," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation; Lerner, p. 204

53. Anna Dickinson (1842 - 1932)

    Dickinson was an early influential woman orator and nationally prominent lyceum lecturer, averaging 150 lectures a season in the late 1860s, championing Black rights and the emancipation of women. She campaigned decisively for Republican candidates in 1862 elections. A warm and admired friend of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, she was aloof from, yet supportive of, the suffrage movement. Later, as an actress and playwright, Dickinson played a female Hamlet in 1882. She was committed to Danville Hospital for the Insane in 1891, released and won damages, and died in obscurity.

    To reference in WCS

    References: Wagner, p. 4 also inform Database at the University of Maryland.

54. Dorothea Dix (1802-1887)

    Dix was a teacher and nurse who turned her energies and her pen toward reform of institutions - prisons, poor-houses, mental hospitals.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Buck, entry for Dix, Dorothea Lynde

55. Fredrick Douglass

    Abolitionist and feminist, escaped slave, persuasive speaker on the abolitionist circuit, staunch supporter of women’s rights, Douglass advocated education, especially literacy, for Blacks, believing that white men could enslave the Black race because white men had the power of literacy. Author of three autobiographies: Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass (1845), My Bondage and My Freedom (1855), and Life and Times of Fredrick Douglass (1881, 1892) and editor of several newspapers, including "The North Star", the only contemporary newspaper to publish the entire text of the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions of Seneca Falls convention. In later life, Douglass served as Counsel-general to Haiti and charge d’affaires of the Dominican Republic.

    In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote,"James Mott, tall and dignified, in Quaker costume was called to the chair, Mary McClintock was appointed Secretary, Fredrick Douglass, Samuel Tillman, Ansel Bascom, E. W. Capron, and Thomas McClintock, took part throughout in the discussions."

    References: I got this off the web someplace, too. The information seems to be generally available at a number of sites.

56. Mary Dyer (- June 1, 1660)

    Followers and friends of Anne Hutchinson, both Dyer and her husband were banished from Massachusetts along with the Hutchinsons in the 1630s. The Dyers then settled in Providence, Rhode Island, helping to found the new colony. In the 1650s the Dyers accompanied Roger Williams and John Clarke to England, where Mary Dyer became a Quaker, influenced by George Fox himself. Returning to Boston, she was arrested and expelled under a new law outlawing Quakers. Arrested for continuing to teach her Quaker doctrine several more times over the next few years, even being flogged and being given a last minute reprieve from the gallows, Dyer was eventually hanged for being a Quaker in Massachusetts.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Mary Dyer: Biography of a Rebel Quaker, Ruth T. Plimpton

57. Amos B. Eaton (1776 - 1842)

    Widowed four times, he lost five children. While serving as a lawyer, he was framed on a forgery charge and sentenced to life in prison at hard labor. He was pardoned by Gov. DeWitt Clinton in 1818. In 1824 Eaton joined Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) as associate professor of experimental philosophy, chemistry, and geology. He subsequently became a renowned geologist, leading the geological expedition which determined the path of the Erie Canal. Eventually he became professor of geology at RPI, established the department of civil engineering, and awarded world’s first degree in that field in 1835

    A faithful friend of Mrs. Emma Willard, Eaton tutored her in the natural sciences so that she could teach natural sciences classes at her Troy Female Seminary. Eventually, he taught classes there himself, offering science courses in advance of what men were getting at a comparable stage in their education.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, pp. 62-63 )

    References: Rensselear Polytechnical Institute article on Eaton (Well, it was here but it seems to have gone away.)

58. Queen Elinor (c. 1122-1204)

    Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right, Eleanor was both Queen of France as wife of Louis VII (ruled 1137-80) and Queen of England as the wife of Henry II (ruled 1154-1189). A month after her marriage to Prince Louis, he became King Louis VII of France. Dressed as an Amazon, she led her troops on the Second Crusade. In 1152, the marriage was annulled on the grounds of consanguinity. Later that year, Eleanor married Henry Plantaganet, Count of Anjou, who became King Henry II of England in 1153. A strong supporter of the arts, her court embodied courtly life. Because of Henry's infidelities, she supported two of their five sons in a rebellion against him. She was captured and imprisoned (1174-1189) until her son, Richard the Lionhearted, ascended the throne. She was his regent while he was on a crusade (1189-1194) and raised the ransom for his release. In 1200 she led the army that put down a rebellion against her second son, King John. She has come to be regarded as one of the greatest female rulers.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, pp. 56-57), Gage wrote, "Passing by other similar instances, we find in the reign of Henry III that four women took seats in Parliament, and in the reign of Edward I ten ladies were called to Parliament, while in the thirteenth century, Queen Elinor became keeper of the Great Seal, sitting as Lord Chancellor in the Aula Regia , the highest court of the Kingdom."

    References: Parry, p. 211-212

59. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans 1819-1880)

    Eliot wrote essays for various newspapers and magazines in the 1840s and 1850s, was nominal editor for the Westminister Review (1852-1854), and translated Das Wesen des Christenhums (1854). She was an extremely popular novelist, writing Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), Silas Marner (1861), Romola (1863), Felix Holt (1866), The Spanish Gypsy (1868), Middlemarch (1872), Legend of Jubal and Other Poems (1874), Daniel Deronda (1876), Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879). George Eliot also published numerous essays and short stories. Many of her works are written from a feminist perspective.

    Toquote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Todd, pp. 212-217

60. Elizabeth I ([1533-1603], queen of England and Ireland [1558-1603])

    Daughter of Henry VIII, king of England, and of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth, who became queen at the death of her half-sister Mary in 1558, was the last of the Tudor rulers of England. Elizabeth's reign was one of the greatest reigns in English history. When she ascended to the throne, England was torn by religious strife, was economically insecure, and was involved in a disastrous war with France. To these problems Elizabeth brought a thorough education, innate shrewdness, and a skill in diplomacy that she had constantly exercised during the reigns of Edward and Mary, when one mistake might have meant her death. England thrived economically, politically, artistically, and intellectually during her reign. Religious tolerance was only one of the many achievements of her reign. Shakespeare, Bacon, and many other writers and artists flourished during her reign.

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "With the learning, energy, and perseverance of Lady Jane Grey, Mary and Elizabeth, all are familiar. "

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, pp. 55-56), Gage wrote, "In the reign of Elizabeth, England was called the Paradise of Women. When Elizabeth ascended the throne, it was not only as queen, but she succeeded her father as the head of the newly-formed rebellious Church, and she held firm grasp on both Church and State during the long years of her reign, bending alike priest and prelate to her fiery will."

    References: "Elizabeth I," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.

61. Elizabeth Fries Lummis Ellet

    Ellet was the first historian to address the relationship between women and the American revolution. Women of the Revolution (1848), a 2 volume work, provided biographical sketches of 60 women who lived through the revolution. Domestic History of the American Revolution (1850) told the story of the American revolution from the differing perspectives of men and women. She gives women's contributions to the war effort, such as boycotting British goods, providing food to the American troops, raising other supplies and money, carrying messages for the military and political authorities, spying on British troops, and caring for prisoners, the dying and the wounded, as much attention as the men's contributions to the battles.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 57) , Gage wrote, "When the American colonies began their resistance to English tyranny, the women - all this inherited tendency to freedom surging in their veins -were as active, earnest, determined, and self-sacrificing as the men, and although, as Mrs. Ellet in her " Women of the Revolution " remarks, "political history says but little, and that vaguely and incidentally, of the women who bore their part in the revolution," yet that little shows woman to have been endowed with as lofty a patriotism as man, and to have as fully understood the principles upon which the struggle was based. "

    References: Kerber, p. 63-65

62. Elizabeth Elstob (1683-1756)

    Scholar and educator, Elstob wrote An Essay on Glory (1708). An unpublished workbook of biographical sketches of learned Englishwomen that later formed the basis of George Ballard's Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain (1752). Other works include an English translation of an Anglo-Saxon text, An English Homily on the Birthday of St. Gregory (1709): preliminary work on her project to publish all 80 extant Saxon homilies of Aelfric; Some Testimonies of Learned Men in Favour of the Intended Edition of the Saxon Homilies (1713); and a grammar on the Anglo-Saxon language, Rudiments of Grammar for the English-Saxon Tongue (1715). Tragically, at the age of 32, her two most staunch allies and promoters, including her brother William, died and Elstob was left alone. Elstob could find work only as a teacher to the poor. Her desperate straits were eased when she acquired new sponsors in 1730 and came to the attention of Queen Caroline in 1733. Thereafter she had regular employment as a governess to the children of the upper nobility.

    For quote, see entry for Queen Anne

    References: Todd, pp. 223-226

63. Eve

    Traditionally excoriated for her role in the Christian story of creation, using a totally outrageous interpretation of the Christian Holy Bible, Eve was blamed by theologians for centuries for bringing sin and death into the world. Using this story to explain why women are subordinate to men, in an interpretation of the Bible that can only be construed as a masculinist wet-dream of biblical proportions, Eve, the first woman, in turn, passes her guilt onto all future women.

    In truth, the story shows that Eve was beguiled by a wily serpent into eating the fruit of the knowledge of good and evil, a very laudable goal. Weak-willed Adam, unable to withstand the allurements of the now-fallen mere mortal (as opposed to the beguilement of a wily supernatural demi-god), in deliberate disobedience to the words which God personally spoke to him, and not motivated as was Eve to become a moral being, nonetheless joins Eve in eating the forbidden fruit. Adam, having done nothing to discourage Eve from her conduct, refused to take responsibility for his actions and tried to blame the incident, first on Eve, then on God herself. He was cursed by God to earn his daily food by the sweat of his brow, a much more serious punishment than Eve's (which was to bear children in labor every year or so), and was driven from Paradise for his transgressions. Out of the goodness of her heart, and for Adam's sake, Eve joined Adam in his banishment, even being willing to share in the labors of the world, even though God herself punished Adam, and Adam alone, by giving him all of the world's work. Remember, Eve was "punished" ("blessed" might be a better term) only with child-birth -- not child care, homemaking, housekeeping, dish-washing, clothes washing, ironing, cooking, cleaning, farming, or any other tasks -- just child-birth. As a reward for her conduct in attempting to become a more moral being, God told Eve that she and her offspring would "crush the head of the serpent," virtually demanding that Eve take the lead in all religious matters.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Available on request. But be prepared. The list is very long.

64. Eliza Woodson Farnham (1815-1864)

    Suffragist, novelist, journalist, essayist. In 1844, she began her career as a matron at Sing Sing Prison where she implemented progressive prison reforms. Her works include Life in Prairie Land (1846), an account of life on the Illinois prairie near Pekin between 1836 and 1840, My Early Days (1859), an autobiographical novel, and California: In-doors and Out (1856), a chronicle of her western trip. In 1856, she became a woman's rights activist and abolitionist. Her best known work, the 2 volume Woman and her Era (1864), presents "organic, religious, esthetic, and historical" arguments for woman's inherent superiority. In The Ideal Attained (1865), the novel's heroine molds the hero into a worthy mate.

    In 1848 her husband (Thomas Jefferson Farnham), who practiced law and had a freight business in California, died suddenly in San Francisco. In 1849, at the age of 34, Eliza Farnham sailed to California to settle her husband's estate and start a farm, or as she called it, a rancho. El Rancho La Libertad was located in Santa Cruz County. She farmed there with her children and her friend Miss Sampson (Miss S.) for more than five years. Sometime during that period, she was joined by her former assistant matron at Sing Sing, Georgiana Bruce Kirby (Geordie). In 1856, Eliza Farnham wrote a book of her experiences called California, In-doors and Out.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66)
    References: Blain, p. 357-358
    Santa Cruz History (Ooops, the page must have died.)

65. Mary Fischer (c. 1623-1698)

    Imprisoned in 1652 because she had rebuked a priest in the typical Quaker fashion, she supplemented her rebuke by joining five other Friends in issuing a pamphlet, False Prophets and False Teachers Described.

    In December 1653, now a full-fledged Quaker militant, Mary went to Cambridge University where military officers were being trained and heckled a speaker. Arrested under the terms of an old, unused anti-vagrancy law, Mary was stripped, severely flogged, and imprisoned. She was again imprisoned in 1654 and 1655, again for rebuking a priest.

    Traveling with Ann Austin by way of Barbados, Mary was among the first Quakers to visit Boston, although their reputation had preceded them. Upon landing, the women were not permitted to leave the ship until their Quaker books and pamphlets had been confiscated and burned and they had been searched for marks of the witch. Taken ashore and held incommunicado for five weeks, they were banished to Barbados.

    The next major episode in her life occurred when she went to England then to the Mediterranean, traveling to Adrianople in Turkey to interview the young Sultan Mahomet IV. She returned safely to England where news of her interview with the feared Sultan made quite a stir and in 1662 married William Bayly. Widowed with three children, she married John Cross in 1678 and migrated to Charleston, S. C. in 1682.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 1, pp. 623-624

66. Abby Kelley Foster (1810-1887)

    An early abolitionist, Kelley went door-to-door in 1835-1837 educating citizens, collecting signatures on petitions, and raising money. She attended the first meetings of women abolitionist in 1837 and 1838 and helped William Lloyd Garrison found the New England Non-Resistant Society. Unusual for her time, she made her first public speech in 1838, which brought her many negative comments. Indeed, the hall in which she spoke was attacked and burned by the mob the following day. With the encouragement of fellow abolitionists, Kelley quit her teaching job and became a lecturer on the anti-slavery circuit. Because of her sex as well as the subject matter of her lectures, Kelley was attacked, slandered, and denied lodgings while struggling to earn enough to pay her expenses. Her controversial (because of her sex) appointment to the business committee of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1840 caused about half of the member to quit the organization and form a competing organization. In 1845 she married the even more radical Stephen Foster who supported her with his time and effort while she continued her career. Although the Civil War freed the slaves, Foster continued speaking and fund-raising for the newly emancipated. She lived the feminist life but only occasionally took overtly feminist political stands. One example was her refusal to pay taxes on her farm on the grounds that being taxed without being allowed representation (the vote) violated fundamental American principles. The farm, sold by the government at a tax-auction, was bought by friends and returned to her.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

    To another Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66)

    To reference in WCS

    References: Weatherfod, p. 136

67. Rachel G. Foster (Avery) (1858 - )

    Corresponding secretary of NWSA and, later, after the merger of the NWSA and the NAWSA, corresponding secretary of NAWSA. A protogee of Susan B. Anthony, Foster was considered as on of SBA's 4 possible successors upon her retirement. Anna Howard Shaw was chosen instead: the other 2 candidates were Harriet Taylor Upton (Treasurer NAWSA) and Carrie Chapman Catt.

    The following women signed "The Protest Against the Unjust Interpretation of the Constitution Presented on Behalf of the Women of the United States by the Officers of the National Woman Suffrage Association to the President of the United States, the Governors of the States, and other Federal and State Officials, on the occasion of the Constitutional Centennial in Philadelphia, September 17th, 1887"
          Susan B. Anthony (NY), Acting President
          Matilda Joslyn Gage (NY), Vice-President-at-Large
          Rachel G. Foster (Pa), Corresponding Secretary
          Mary Wright Seweall (Ind), Chairman Executive Committee
          Lillie Devereux Blake (NY), Vice-President for New York, Chairman Presentation Committee

    References: I got this off the web somewhere. Sorry but I forgot to record where.

68. Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845)

    Elizabeth Fry, a soon-to-be British prison reformer, visited London's Newgate Prison in 1813. Horrified by what she found, she began her lifetime commitment to prison reform. In 1819, she founded an industrial school for female prisoners. Her experiences are recorded in her autobiography, Memoirs (1847).

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Greenspan, p. 213

69. Margaret Fuller (1810-1850)

    Horace Greeley was so impressed by Summer on the Lakes (1844), an early environmental and feminist work which also questioned American's exploitation of Native Americans, that he hired her as feature writer for his New York Tribune. She continued her work for the tribune on her trip to Europe, serving as the Tribune's foreign correspondent. On returning home, her ship was lost at sea.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66)

    References: Davidson, p. 336-337

70. William Lloyd Garrison (1805-79)

    Abolitionist, feminist, founder of the influential antislavery newspaper Liberator (1831), founding member of the New England Anti-Slavery Society (1832), and leader in establishing the National American Anti-Slavery Society (1843). Garrison was a true radical and opposition to his policy of denouncing northern clergy for their silence on the issue of slavery developed within abolitionist ranks. Garrison's advocacy of equal rights for women generally and especially within the abolitionist movement was cause for further dissension. When Garrison later decided that the slavery clauses of the U.S. Constitution were immoral and that, consequently, it was equally immoral to take an oath in support of the Constitution, the split widened further. Denouncing it as “a covenant with Death and an agreement with Hell,” he publicly burned a copy of the federal Constitution in 1840. His motto was “No union with slaveholders” and he advocated peaceful separation of the free states from the slave states. After the Civil War, Garrison ceased publication of the Liberator and advocated dissolution of the antislavery societies. He became prominent in campaigns to promote free trade, to abolish customhouses on a world scale, to achieve suffrage for American women, to work for justice for Native Americans, to establish Prohibition, and to eliminate the consumption of tobacco in the U.S.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65)

    References: "Garrison, William Lloyd," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

71. Abigail Hooper Gibbons (1801-1893)

    Pious Quaker who established her own school for Quaker children in Philadelphia in 1821. She moved to New York City in 1830 and became a teacher in a Quaker school there. In 1833, Hooper married James S. Gibbons, a wealthy Quaker merchant. Their initial entry into political activism was through the abolitionist movement: eventually they would also support temperance, abolition of capital punishment, relief of the poor, and prison reform. During the Civil War, Abigail worked as a nurse for the union army. After the war, she returned to her women's prison reform activities and founded the Labor and Aid Society to help veterans find work and to provide relief for war widows and orphans. She helped to found several other organizations designed to aid poor women. She attended 10th annual Women's Rights Convention in New York City on May 10-11, 1860.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

    References: McHenry, p. 152-153; Buhle and Buhle, p. 187

    Anthony Gibson

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "In 1599, Anthony Gibson wrote a book which in the prolix phraseology of the times was called, "A Woman's Worth defended against all the Men in the World, proving to be more Prefect, Excellent, and Absolute, in all Virtuous Actions, than any man of What Quality soever." "

    Madame Marie Moret Godin

    To reference in WCS

    Bridget Graffort

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 59 ), Gage wrote, "Although the first plot of ground in the United States for a public school had been given by a woman (Bridget Graffort), in 1700, her sex were denied admission. Mrs. Adams, as well as her friend Mrs. Warren, had in their own persons felt the deprivations of early educational advantages. The boasted public school system of Massachusetts, created for boys only, opened at last its doors to girls, merely to secure its share of public money."

72. Dr. Samuel Gregory and his brother George

    Reluctant to allow women any say in the management of the college, yet thinking it indecent for men to deliver babies, in 1848 founded Boston (later New England) Female Medical College, the first medical school especially for women. His attacks on male practitioners and the mediocre level of training offered at the school led the college into controversy, even among women.

    Excluded from male colleges, this and other all-female institutions enabled women to achieve a level of training that would have been otherwise impossible. Since women were also excluded from teaching hospitals, most women's colleges founded their own companion hospitals to further enhance their training.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    References: The History Net: Women in the Workplace

73. Lady Jane Grey (1537-54)

    Queen of England for nine days. Upon the death of Henry VIII's son, the boy king Edward VI, Lady Jane was proclaimed queen, but Edward's half sister, Mary Tudor, contested the succession. Lady Jane was subsequently imprisoned in the Tower of London. She and her husband were accused of treason, and both were beheaded on February 12, 1554.

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "With the learning, energy, and perseverance of Lady Jane Grey, Mary and Elizabeth, all are familiar. "

    References: "Grey, Lady Jane," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

74. Constantia Crawley Grierson (c. 1704-1732)

    Poet. Her works remained unpublished in her lifetime. Born to poor illiterate parents, Crawley became a scholar who was recognized for her expertise in Greek and Latin. After studying midwifery, history, theology, philosophy, and mathematics, she became the second wife of George Grierson. His business as the King's Printer thrived in part because of her talents as 'corrector of the press.'

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Constantia Grierson, an Irish girl, of humble parentage, was celebrated for her literary acquirements, though dying at the early age of twenty-seven."

    References: Blain, p. 462

75. Josephine S. Griffing (1814-1872)

    An early, active abolitionist, her home served as a way station on the underground railroad. Like many other abolitionists, she was an early supporter of women's rights: she was elected president of the Ohio Woman's Rights Association in 1853. Yet, from 1851 to 1855, she was a paid agent of the Western Anti-Slavery Society. During the Civil War, she founded the Freedman's Bureau (an organization to help the emancipated slave make a successful transition to freedom by supplying food, clothing, shelter, education, job training, etc.) during the Civil War. After the organization was operating smoothly, it was incorporated into the War Department where services got tangled in bureaucratic red-tape. She was elected first vice-president of the new American Equal Rights Association (1866), was a founder and president of the Universal Franchise Association of the District of Columbia (1867), and was chosen to be corresponding secretary of the National Woman Suffrage Association (1869).

    References: McHenry, 169; Wagner, p. 3

76. Sarah (1792 - 1873) and Angelina (1805-1879) Grimke

    The Grimke Sisters from South Carolina, born and raised in a wealthy, slave-holding family, moved to the North and became early abolitionists. They became the first female abolitionist agents, speaking throughout the North about their first hand experiences with slavery. Angelina wrote An Appeal to the Christian Women of the South (1836), asking southern women to denounce slavery. Attacked as "unchristian," the sisters had to fight for their rights to be publicly active, a right denied them because they were women. They were among the first feminists to see the link between racism and sexism. In Letters to Catharine Beecher in Reply to an Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism Addressed to A. E. Grimke (1837), Angelina equated woman's denial of liberty to slavery. In Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women (1838), Sarah published the first woman's rights pamphlet in the United States. Their public lives ended abruptly when Angelina married the abolitionist Theodore Weld and the sisters settled into a domestic life. Both sisters remained committed feminists and abolitionists until their deaths, although Angelina was first and foremost an abolitionist while Sarah was first and foremost a feminist.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65)

    To reference in WCS
              Theodore D. Weld (Angelina's husband), American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses (New York: Published by the American Anti-Slavery Society, 1839)

    References: Davidson, p. 367

77. Phebe Ann Coffin Hanaford (1829-1921)

    Ordained Universalist minister, author of at least 14 books, poet, suffragist, cousin of Lucretia Mott, founding member of the American Woman Suffrage Association, Hanaford was a also a scholar, writing about the activities of earlier American women in Daughters of America, 1882, Boston, B.B. Russell, 1882 (a revision of her earlier work, Women of the Century, 1876). In addition to her work as an ordained minister, she was involved in numerous organization conducting services for the International Council of Women (1888) and being elected as vice-president of Association for the Advancement of Women (1874) and Sorosis, and as president of the Woman's Press Club (1901-1906), New Century Study Circle and the Society for Political Study (1896-1989). She officiated at the funeral services of her friends Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871) 

    Reference: Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 2, p.p. 126-127

78. Elizabeth Boynton Harbert

    An influential Illinois suffragist in the fourth quarter of the 19th century, Harbert kept the Illinois association alive by serving as president for a total of twelve years. A founder and first president of the Evanston (home of Northwestern University) Women's Club as well as a prolific writer, her early writings expressed her belief that "both women and society were injured by pushing children into stereotypical sex roles that confined females to the 'women's sphere.' She thought that this practice condemned a woman to a non-productive lifetime of dependence on others. "

    "However, Harbert 's later writings admit that perhaps women did have some virtues and traits that were typically characteristic of her sex, such as purity, charity and fidelity. She wrote that women were "born to soothe and to solace, to help and to heal the sick world that leans upon her." Therefore, giving women the vote would allow them to fulfill their natural nurturing function. In essence, Harbert's writings exemplified the whole movement's shift from an elite intellectual pursuit for justice, to a middle-class reform movement that would benefit society."

    Stanford University's Feminist and Women's Periodicals contains a work, The New Era, Chicago: 1885 in their Special Collections which was edited by Elizabeth Boynton Harbert, possibly the "Chicago suffrage newspaper" referred to at The Huntington Votes for Women Exhibit.) (Ain't the Internet wonderful?)

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Ahead of their Time: A Brief History of Woman Suffrage in Illinois

79. Queen Ha-t-asu [Hatshepsut] (Maatkare, 1473-1458 BCE, 18th Dynasty)

    Perhaps best known for her magnificent temple at Deir el Bahari in Thebes, Hatshepsut, the fifth ruler of the 18th Dynasty, was the daughter of Thutmose I and the beautiful Queen Ahmose. When Thutmose II, Hatshepsut's husband and half-brother, died in 1479 BCE, his son by a minor wife, Thutmose III, was appointed heir. Because of his youth, however, Hatshepsut was appointed regent. They ruled jointly until 1473 when she declared herself pharaoh. Assuming all of the regalia and ceremonies of a true Pharaoh and dressing in men's attire, Hatshepsut administered affairs of the nation, with the full support of the religious leaders. As was the custom of the time, her mortuary temple at Deir el Bahari included reliefs of her divine birth as the daughter of Amon. Hatshepsut disappeared in 1458 B.C. when Thutmose III, wishing to reclaim the throne, led a revolt.

    To reference in "Cleopatra's Needles" (1878)

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Joyce Tyldesley, Viking Press, 1996
    Queen Hatasu, and Her Expedition to the Land of Punt, chapter 8 of Pharaohs Fellahs and Explorers by Amelia Edwards. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1891

80. Heloise (12 th century)

    The story of Peter Abelard (1079-1142) and Heloise is one of the most famous and tragic love stories of the middle ages. A great beauty, Heloise, ward of her uncle Fulbert, a canon of the church, was educated at his behest to become one of the most literate women of her time. Since all institutions of learning were closed to her as they were to all women of her time, Abelard was hired as her tutor. Eventually Heloise became pregnant by Abelard who then married her in a ceremony. Heloise insisted that the marriage be kept secret from her uncle as well as church officials so as not to hurt his career. Well, when Uncle Fulbert found out that his niece was married to a man who intended to allow the world to think of her as his concubine rather than his wife so as not to spoil his professional opportunities, Uncle Fulbert became very angry. To make a long story short, Fulbert and had Abelard castrated. Both Abelard and Heloise retreated to monastic life. They both had successful careers Heloise becoming abbess at Paraclete and Abelard becoming abbot of the monastery at Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuis. Their son, Astrolabe, was raised by Abelard's sister. About 1132 Abelard and Heloise began their famous exchange of letters, which have become classics of romantic correspondence.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: And now, for a bit of history (Herstory)

81. Felicia Hemans (1795-1835)

    Poet, hymn writer, and essayist whose works include: Poems (1808), England and Spain, or, Valour and Patriotism: A Poem (1808), Domestic Affections and Other Poems (1812), The Restoration of Art in Italy (1816), Modern Greece (1817), Translations from Cameons and other Poets (1818), Wallace's Invocation to Bruce (1819), Tales and Heroic Scenes (1819), The Sceptic (1820), Welsh Melodies (1823), Vespers of Palermo (play - 1823), The Seige of Valencia (play- 1823), De Chantillion (play - no date), Lays of Many Lands (poems - 1825), The Forest Sanctuary (poems - 1825), Hymns for Childhood (1827), Casablanca (1828), Records of Women (1828), Songs of the Affectons (1830), Hymns on the Works of Nature for the Use of Children (1833), National Lyrics and Songs for Music (1834), and Scenes and Hymns of Life and Other Religious Poems (1834)

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Todd, p. 327-328

82. Caroline Herschell (1750-1848)

    Scientist, specifically an astronomer. As an "assistant" to her brother, Caroline Herschel performed the nightly observations of the sky. She discovered 8 comets, reporting the first in 1787. The Royal Society published her Index of fixed stars in 1798. In 1828, she received the Astronomical Society's gold medal for her unpublished, but widely circulated, Catalogue of . . . Star Clusters and Nebulae.

    In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Caroline Herschell shares the fame of her brother as an astronomer. "

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Blain, p. 516

83. Judge Thomas Hertell (1771-1849)

    At the age of 65, Hertell introduced a "Married Woman's Property Rights" bill to the New York legislature in 1836. Only due to Hertell's long experience as a reformer and Ernestine Rose's efforts to rouse women was New York's Married Woman's Property Act passed in 1848. The bill did not become law until 1848, six months before Hertell died at age 78. Hertell argued for the bill on the ground of women's and men's inherent equality. Most other supporters of the bill voted for it to protect, not liberate, women.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

    References: Hoff, p. ??, Suhl, p. 53-55, 64

84. Elizabeth Coltman Heyrick (1769-1831)

    Social reformer, writer. Heyrick worked for a gentler society: in The Warning (1824), she attacked warmongering. She combated cruelty to animals, tried to improve children's lives, believed in separate spheres for men and women but supported better job opportunities for women; but most of all, was an early English abolitionist. The best known of her approximately 20 works are Immediate, Not Gradual, Abolition (1824) and Appeal to the Hearts and Consciences of British Women (1828).

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67), Gage wrote, "In 1824 Elizabeth Heyrick, a Quaker woman, cut the gordian know of difficulty in the anti-slavery struggle in England, by an able essay in favor of immediate, unconditional emancipation."

    References: Blain, p. 518

85. Abbess Hilda of Whitby (614-680)

    Hilda hosted the synod of Whitby in her convent, in the ninth century. According to the English historian Bede (673-735), Hilda was consulted by kings and commoners alike. Whitby appears to have had an excellent library - it produced one of the first copies of Life of Pope Gregory I around 680.

    In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 56), Gage wrote, "The synod of Whitby, in the ninth century, was held in the convent of the Abbess Hilda, she herself presiding over its deliberations. "

    References: Buck, entry for Hilda of Whitby

    Ellice Hopkins

    social purity reformer and preacher

    A biography of Hopkins is on the market: Sue Morgan, A Passion for Purity: Ellice Hopkins and the politics of gender in the late-Victorian church, University of Bristol, Department of Theology & Religious Studies, 1999. According to the book blurb, "A wonderfully subtle study of late Victorian social purity reformer Ellice Hopkins."

    To reference in WCS

86. Harriet Hosmer (1830-1908)

    Her first love was art and sculpture. She was so successful that replicas of her statue "Puck" sold for $1000 each in the late 1850s. Not surprisingly, her other great love also required that she use her hands - this time as an inventor of "little machines and household devices." After earning her fortune from her art, America's first great woman sculptor spent the last 30 years of her life as a professional inventor, acquiring at least 7 patents. One patent was for a process for creating synthetic marble (suitable for interior design) from limestone, a commercial success. She was also interested in electro-magnetic motors.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: Stanley, p. 329, 343, 352

    Mary Seymour Howell

    A suffragist from New York, Howell was a member of EC Stanton's Revising Committee for The Woman's Bible.

    To reference in WCS

    Thomas Hughes

    To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

    Humbold

    In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "The Amazons, of whom all nations give trace and to whose existence Humbold gave credence, had broken from domineering patriarchal rule, founding the first republic known under that system. "

87. Harriot K. Hunt (1805-1875)

    Practicing medicine when the profession was still largely unlicensed, Hunt saw women's diseases as a result of submissiveness and promoted independence as a cure. She encouraged her patients to throw away the medicines their male doctors had given them, to drink plenty of water, and to keep a diary.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    References: Berkinow, p. 50

    Jane and Richard Hunt

    Quaker feminist and organizer of the 1848 Seneca Falls Woman's Rights Convention

    From Mercury Center "In nearby Waterloo, a largely Quaker community on the Cayuga-Seneca Falls canal, Quaker industrialist Richard Hunt manufactured finely woven woolenshawls. Because he opposed slavery, he refused to use cotton products."

    In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote a detailed story about the activities of Lucretia Mott, Martha C. [Coffin] Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann McClintock, and Richard Hunt.

88. Judge E. P. Hurlbut

    A leading member of the New York Bar and author of Essays Upon Human Rights and Their Political Guarantees (c. 1835), in which he advocated woman's rights. Hurlbert staunchly supported women's rights in private as well as in public. Essays is currently in-print.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

    References: Stanton, p. 197

89. Hypatia of Alexandria (c. 355-415)

    Men from all over the ancient world flocked to Alexandria to become her students because she was noted for her mastery of mathematics and philosophy. Her closest, most loyal students later held high imperial or ecclesiastical positions. Through her network of former students, her influence reached as far as Constantinople, Syria, and Cyrene. Moving in high government circles, surrounded by imperial and town dignitaries and by wealthy, well-born, and influential students, doted upon by the influential of the city, and showered with civic honors, Hypatia had substantial influence in the political and social life in Alexandria.

    A pagan in an increasingly Christian world, Hypatia's students included Christians and pagans alike. When Cyril became bishop, he began a battle for the purity of the Christian faith by moving against groups that did not hold orthodox beliefs. By using heavy-handed methods, such as expelling the Novatians from the city, closing their churches, confiscating their liturgical objects, and depriving their bishop of all rights, Cyril earned the contempt of many Alexandrians. Yet, he had followers who would stop at nothing to support this cause.

    With her students, Hypatia had separated herself from the masses and was, consequently, not particularly popular with the populous. Her fellow pagans knew that she had not fought to preserve traditional Hellenic religion. Cyril discovered her weaknesses and attacked. His people began to spread rumors that Hypatia performed black magic, a very dastardly crime which drew the severest punishments. Whipping the crowd into a frenzy, Cyril's men seized Hypatia, by now an old woman, off the street, beat her, and dragged her body to a church where they mutilated her flesh with sharp tiles and burned her remains.

    To reference in "Burning the White Dog" (1876)

    References:
    Dzieska, Maria, Hypatia of Alexandria, Harvard University Press, 1995
    15 Women, 15 Centuries: Hypatia

90. Anne Hutchinson

    A charismatic 17th century Massachusetts religious teacher who spoke to women, and later men, in the privacy of her own home about the local minister's weekly sermons and about her own conception of each individual's inner light, Hutchinson was considered disruptive to the community for her unorthodox teachings; she was banished in 1637. She moved to Rhode Island and eventually, Long Island, New York, where she, along with her family, was massacred by Indians.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Plimpton, Ruth T. Mary Dyer: Biography of a Rebel Quaker

91. Iroquois

    Gage credited the Iroquois nation with instilling in her vision of a feminist future. Among the rights which women held among the Native American tribes:

    1. Children belonged to the mother's tribe, not the father's tribe.
    2. If a marriage proves to be an unhappy one, each person is at liberty to divorce and to marry again. What each person brought into the marriage, each person take out of the marriage. Women get custody of children.
    3. When a man brought the products of the hunt home and gave it to his wife, it was hers to dispose of as she saw fit. Her decisions were absolute, even to the sale of skins.
    4. A woman retains control of her possessions at all times, even after marriage. They are hers to sell, give away, or bequeath as she sees fit. Her husband, father, brothers, and sons have no claim on her property.
    5. Women ruled the house and stores were held in common.
    6. Rape and wife-battering were almost unknown.
    7. Women had the right to vote.
    8. Treaties had to be ratified by 3/4 of all voters and 3/4 of all mothers.
    9. Women had the power to impeach a chief (they "removed his horns," the deer's antlers he wore which signified his position.)
    10. Women spoke in council meetings and were listened to respectfully.
    11. Women could forbid braves from going to war.

    In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "The Iroquois, the most formidable confederacy existing east of the Mississippi at the discovery of America, traced their descent in the female line. Upon the Iroquois system of government, that of the United States is based, and thus our country has given unwitting recognition of the wisdom of the matriarchate."

    References: Sally Roesch Wagner, The Untold Story of the Iroquois Influence on Early Feminists, 1996, Sky Carrier Press

92. Isis

    Depicted in human form crowned either by a throne or by cow horns enclosing a sun disk (sometimes even with a vulture), Isis was the daughter of Geb and Nut, sister and wife of Osiris (God of the Underworld / God of the Dead), and mother of Horus. As the personification of the throne, she was an important source of the pharaoh's power. Popular throughout Egypt and, during the later Roman empire era, throughout the Roman world, Isis, Osiris, and Horus figure in a pre-Christian resurrection myth.

    After Osiris was murdered and dismembered by Seth, Isis retrieved and reassembled his body, taking on the role of a goddess of the dead and of funeral rites. Isis impregnated herself from the corpse, resurrecting Osiris from the dead, and subsequently secretly gave birth to Horus, hiding the child from Seth in the papyrus swamps. Horus later defeated Seth and became the first ruler of a united Egypt. Isis, as mother of Horus, was by extension regarded as the mother and protectress of the pharaohs. The relationship between Isis and Horus may also have influenced the Christian conception of the relationship between Mary and the infant Jesus Christ. The depiction of Isis, seated, holding or suckling the child Horus is certainly reminiscent of the iconography of Mary and Jesus.

    To reference in WCS

    Reference: Isis

93. Helen Marie Hunt Jackson (1830-1885)

    Poet, novelist, short story writer, children's writer. Her works include 2 novels which were among the first to treat Native Americans sympathetically: A Century of Dishonor (1881) and Ramona (1884).

    To reference in WCS

    References: Buck, entry for Jackson, Helen Maria Hunt (see Weatherford for longer entry)

94. Marie Jackson (Mercy Ruggles Bisbe Jackson 1802-1877)

    Well-educated for her time, especially for a young woman, Mercy opened a girls' school to support herself and her children upon the death of her first husband, Rev. John Bisbe, until she opened a dry-goods store in 1832. She married her second husband, Capt. Daniel Jackson, of Plymouth, Mass. in 1835. Her interest in medicine was encouraged when a regular Physician began giving her books and medicines. Soon she had a thriving medical practice. After her second husband's death, she entered the New England Female Medical College in 1852 and graduated in 1860. Her membership in the American Institute of Homeopathy were regularly rejected, because she was a woman, until June 1871. In 1873 she was appointed adjunct professor of the diseases of children at the newly opened Boston University School of Medicine. She continued to practice medicine and to teach until her death. She was also a temperance supporter and a woman's suffragist.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    Reference: Famous American Women, Smith, p. 209

95. Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi (1842-1906)

    From the wealthy and well-connected Putnam publishing family, Putnam was determined to become a physician. Since she came of age just as the Civil War began, she expected greater opportunities than women who had come before her. She acquired her medical degree from the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1863 and went to France for post-graduate training. After 2 years of efforts, she became the first woman of any nationality to be admitted to the prestigious Ecole de Medecine. She graduated with high honors and won an award for her thesis. When she returned to the US in 1871, Putnam was better educated than most physicians of either sex. Due to her family's connections, she was able to develop a strong private practice. One by one, she was admitted to the most prestigious medical organizations. She continued her research, publishing over 100 scientific papers. Unusual for her time, Jacobi continued her medical practice after she married and had 3 children. She organized the Advancement of the Medical Education of Women in 1874 and served as president for most of her life. An active suffragist, her "Common Sense" Applied to Woman Suffrage became a classic for the suffragist movement.

    To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

    References: Weatherford, p. 187

96. Mariana Johnson

    Co-owner along with her husband Oliver of the Ohio Anti-Slavery Bugle, an abolitionist newspaper, Mariana Johnson was an early woman's rights activist and suffragist, as well as an abolitionist and reformer. Presided over the first Ohio state women's rights convention in 1850.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66)

    Reference: Weatherford, American Suffragists, pp. 37, 38, 44

    Madame de Kalamine

    To reference in WCS

97. Maria Ann Angelica Kauffmann (1741-1807)

    Swiss painter in the rococo style, Kauffmann produced more than 500 paintings whose graceful, sentimental style was extremely popular in the late 18th century. While living in London, she painted elegant, technically brilliant works such as Cupid's Wand (1793, Attingham Park, near Shrewsbury, England). She was a founding member of the Royal Academy (London). She also did much decorative work on ceilings, walls, and furniture for the British architect and designer Robert Adam.

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

    References: "Kauffmann, (Maria Ann) Angelica," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

98. Georgiana Bruce Kirby

    assistant to Farnham at Sing Sing

    Born in England in 1818 and an emigrant to Boston in 1838, Kirby fascinated with the Transcendentalists and spent four years at the now famous Brook Farm, a community based on principles of spirituality, equality and the dignity of labor. Here she encountered many of the great minds of the time, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Margaret Fuller.

    In the years following, Georgiana Bruce undertook several endeavors. She worked with Eliza Farnham at Sing Sing prison where the two women instituted significant, though controversial, reforms in the treatment and education of the female inmates. She taught on a plantation in Missouri where her first-hand experiences with slavery absolutely confirmed her abolitionist sentiment. Back in the North she continued her teaching career, and then became the governess in a well-to-do African-American family. She was very active in the anti-slavery movement.

    Invited by Eliza Farnham, who had inherited several properties in California, to move to California, and funded by journalist and politician Horace Greeley, Bruce arrived in the isolated community of Santa Cruz in the summer of 1850. She married local businessman Richard Kirby and eventually had five children. Santa Cruz, California pioneer, a motivated and independent woman, became a leading figure in the Santa Cruz Unitarian Church and took up the causes of temperance and women's suffrage. She wrote frequently on those topics in local and national papers and, in 1869, founded the first local society of Suffragists. She hosted national women's leaders such as Elizabeth Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.

    Georgiana Bruce Kirby died in 1887 at the age of 68. Her memoirs, Years of Experience, were published the same year. Our school is proud to honor this pioneer, not only of the western frontier, but of the ever-present frontiers of education, enfranchisement and human dignity.

    Reference
    Georgiana Bruce Kirby

    To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66)

99. Jean Francoise de La Harpe (1739-1803)

    Ardent disciple of Voltaire and successful author of numerous works. Elected to the Academy in 1776, he was made professor of literature in the Lycée in 1787. He welcomed the French Revolution, until he was imprisoned in 1794. After regaining his freedom, he renounced his earlier beliefs and became an zealous Catholic.

    for quote, see entry for Catharine II

    References: Website sponsored by the Catholic church

100. Countess Lambertini

     Illegitimate daughter of the Vatican's Secretary of State, Cardinal Antonelli, who was born in a peasant's hut and who died reportedly worth $20,000,000. Countess Lambertini contested the Cardinal's will wherein he left most of his fortune to his relatives and little to either his daughter or his church.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Rome's Syllabus Of Condemned Opinions: The Last Blast Of The Catholic Church's Medieval Trumpet, Joseph McCabe at Internet Infidels

101. 

     Sophia Lapierre

     A Pariaian singer who was a member of a conspiracy to overthrow the Directory in 1795. Tried, she was acquited because she could only be found guilty of singing republican songs.

     for quote, see entry for Charolette Corday

     References: Hale, Woman's Record, p. 338

102. William Edward Hartpole Lecky (1838 Mar 26 - 1903 Oct 22)

     19th century British historian whose works include The Religious Tendencies Of The Age (anon) [1860], Leaders Of Public Opinion In Ireland [1862], History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe [1865], History Of European Morals From Augustus To Charlemagne [1869], History Of England In The Eighteenth Century [1878-90], Democracy And Liberty [1896/99], The Map Of Life [1899], and Historical And Political Essays [e:1908]

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle, p. 52), Gage writes, "Lecky, in his "History of Rationalism in Europe," shows that the vast majority of the victims of fanaticism and witchcraft, burned, drowned, and tortured, were women."

103. Jenny Lind (1820-87)

     19th century soprano singer of enormous popularity

     References: "Lind, Jenny," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

104. Eliza Lynn Linton (1822-1898)

     Novelist and journalist. Linton wrote 3 novels before embarking on a journalism career. Two historical novels, Azeth the Egyptian (1846) and Amymore (1848), set in Greece with a strong advocacy of women's rights, preceeded the thoroughly criticized Realities (1851). She worked as a newspaper correspondent both in the US and abroad before returning to writing novels. Grasp Your Nettle (1865), Sowing the Wind (1867), The Mad Willoughby and Other Tales (1875), and The Atonement of Leam Dundas (1877) all confront the problems of women. Her best-seller Joshua Davidson (1872) recast the story of Christ in a modern setting. Under Which Lord (1879) was an attack on ritualism in the church. Three final works, ironically, attacked the "modern" woman (shades of Phyllis Schlafly): The Girl of the Period and Other Essays (1873), The One Too Many (1894), and In Haste and Leisure (1895). She also wrote several autobiographical novels including Patricia Kemball (1874), The Rebel of the Family (1880), and The Autobiography of Christopher Kirkland (1885). Her actual autobiography, My Literary Life was published posthumously in 1889.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 60), Gage wrote, "Eliza Lynn, an Irish lady, was at this time writing leading editorials for political papers."

     for another quote, see entry for Jane Marcet

     References: Shattock, p. 266-267

105. Dr. David Livingstone

     Scottish medical missionary to Africa. Henry Stanley found Livingston in Ujiji, Tanzania in 1870, remarking, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume."

     In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "In Africa, Livingstone found tribes swearing by the mother, tracing descent through her."

106. Hannah E. Myers Longshore (1819-1901)

     One of America's first female "regular" medical doctors, graduating from the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1851, only 2 years after Elizabeth Blackwell graduated from Geneva College in New York.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

     References: McHenry, p. 251; Solomon, p. 38

107. Clemence Sophia Harned Lozier (1813-1888)

     Lozier girls' school, which she opened in her home (1820s) when her husband's health failed, included subjects which reflected her own interests, including anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. While teaching, she was learning to be a physician by studying under her physician-brother. During the 1840, she was active in several reform movements. In 1849, she entered the Central Medical College of Rochester, and graduated from its successor, Syracuse Medical College, in 1853. While running a thriving medical practice in New York City as an ob/gyn, she continued lecturing on physiology, anatomy, and hygiene. In 1863 she helped to found the New York Medical College and Hospital for Women, a homeopathic institution. She was also in a number of reform movements, including the woman's suffrage movement (supporting the National Woman Suffrage Association), prison reform, sanitary reform, international arbitration, civil rights for Negroes and Indians, temperance. She hosted for Elizabeth Cady Stanton's 70th birthday party.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

     References: McHenry, p. 255-256; Stanton, p. 389

108. John Lubbock, Lord Avebury (1834-1913)

     English naturalist, banker and philanthropist, Lubbock is considered one of the founding figures in anthropology. In a career loaded with honors, he was referenced by Charles Darwin in Descent of Man (more than 25 times). His works on a broad range of topics include Pre-historic Times, (1865) London: Williams and Norgate and Origin of Civilisation (1870). One of his works, The Pleasures of Life sold half a million copies, and was translated into 40 languages. Lubbock was knighted as the 1st Baron, Lord Avebury.

     In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "Tylor, "Primitive Culture;" Lubbock, "Pre-Historic Times and Origin of Civilization," and numerous other investigators agree with Bachofen in the statement that in primitive society the family, the state, and the Church, were all under woman's control; that society started, in fact, under the absolute power and authority of woman. "

     References: Biographical Dictionary of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Freethinkers by Joseph McCabe

109. Catharine Sawbridge Maccaulay (1731-1791 also spelled Macaulay)

     First English woman to write a major work on history, a loudly-acclaimed 8 volume work with various volumes being published between 1763 and 1785. Her Letters on Education (1790), where she advocated education for women, is once again in print.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 58)

     References: Todd, p.429-431

110. Arabella Aurelia Babb Mansfield (1846-1911)

     On June 15, 1869, Arabella Aurelia Babb Mansfield became the first woman in modern times to be admitted to a state bar in this country. Although she had not graduated from law school, she had passed the Iowa State Bar exam. She was admitted at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, in spite of a state statute which admitted only 'white males' when the progressive Iowa Judge, Francis Springer, granted Mansfield's application to the bar by relying on an Iowa statute that held that "words importing the masculine gender only may be extended to females." Three cheers for Judge Springer.

     To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

     Reference: Duke Law School History (Well, it was here any way.)

111. Jane Haldimand Marcet (1769-1858)

     Author of one of the first elementary science texts, the 2 volume Conversations on Chemistry (1805). Marcet studied under Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution. This extremely popular text (16 English, 15 American, and 2 French editions and 160,000 copies before 1853) was intended to introduce women to chemistry. The book is written as a conversation between a female teacher and 2 students - one student who is theory oriented and one who likes spectacular experiments. This format allowed Marcet to discuss both theory and practice. Each edition was updated to reflect new discoveries. Marcet helped to popularize all sciences: other works include Conversations on Botany (1817), Conversations on Vegetable Physiology (1829), and Conversations on Natural Philosophy (1829). Her most successful book was Conversations on Political Economy (1816), an introduction to the new discipline of economics. She was also author of numerous children's books on a variety of subjects.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 60)

     References: Alic, p. 176-178, Alic, p. 208 footnote #2

112. Margaret, wife of Malcolm Canmore (generally spoken of as Saint Margaret)

     King Malcolm III of Scotland, Malcolm Canmore and successor to Macbeth, fell in love with and married Margaret, a Saxon princess around 1070. Although she was the mother of 8 children, Queen Margaret strongly influenced the religious and aristocratic complexion of Scotland, forging links with the aristocracy of Europe and founding many churches across Scotland.

     According to legend, Queen Margaret would often disappear from her court to worship privately in a small, local cave. Malcolm, suspicious of her and believing she had a lover, followed her to the cave, only to find her kneeling in prayer for his safety.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference:Saint Margaret

113. Margaret, wife of Louis VII and later Henry Courtmantel (Henry II, 'Curtmantle') of England.

     Gage has the name wrong, it was Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, (1122-1204) who was the ex-wife of Louis VII of France and who married the man who would later become Henry II of England. Henry II is best remembered for his feud with Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket.

     Heiress to the huge and wealthy Duchy of Aquataine (about half the size of modern day France), well-educated Eleanor was a sought after bride. Eventually settling for King Louis VII of France, she married him in 1137 and soon bore him 2 daughters, one who became Margaret of France. Tiring of Louis's over-pious lifestyle, Eleanor quickly gathered her own army and troupe of women together and set off for the Holy Land as soon as the First Crusade was announced. After a battlefield debacle, the grand tour of Antioch, a personal audience with Byzantine Emperor Manuel Comnenus himself, a joyous welcome by Queen Melisende of Jerusalem and a possibly incestuous incident with her uncle Raymond of Poitiers, Eleanor and Louis returned from the Holy Land shouting and arguing all the way. Soon after their arrival in France, their marriage was annulled (1152) on the grounds that they were fourth cousins. Eleanor met and fell in love with Henry FitzEmpress, Henry Plantagenet who was 12 years her junior, possibly before her annulment was finalized. Six weeks after her divorce was granted, Eleanor, five months pregnant, married Henry. After the devastating English civil war and the death of King Stephen, Henry was made King of England (1154). Bearing Henry 8 children, 5 boys and 3 girls, Eleanor finally became fed up with Henry's infidelities and joined in a rebellion with her sons. Her conspiracy against Henry was discovered and she was confined to "house arrest" at Winchester (1173 - 1189) when aged 67. Following the death of Young King Henry , a son who had been crowned kind along with her husband while her husband still lived, (c.1183), and of King Henry II (1189), her son Richard, to become known as The Lion-Hearted, became King of England. Released from her imprisonment, Eleanor became a trusted advisor to Richard, negotiating with Navarre for marriage between Princess Berengaria and Richard. Eleanor ran the kingdom while Richard was away on the Third Crusade. When Richard was taken prisoner returning from the crusade, Eleanor organized the raising of his ransom, and saw Richard freed and recrowned. Eleanor outlived Richard by five years. She took part of the government of England under her son King John, but retired to Aquitaine. From her homeland, Eleanor arranged the marriage of granddaughter Blanche of Castile to the grandson of Louis VII (1200). Eleanor died (1/4/1204) at Fontervault Abbey, which she had continuously patronized, and was subsequently buried there.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204)

114. Martia (variant spelling Marcia)

     Wife of the noted and benevolent ruler, Guithelin, Marcia, a learned woman in her own right, codified the laws which became known as the Marcian Laws, Martian Laws, or the Lew Martiana. Believing them to have been named after the much later Saxon kingdom of Mercia, King Alfred the Great later translated the code as the Mercian Laws. Queen Marcia ruled Britain for many years after Guithelin's death during their son's minority.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 57), Gage wrote, "Running back two or three centuries before the Christian era, we find Martia, her seat of power in London, holding the reins of government so wisely as to receive the surname of Proba, the Just. She especially devoted herself to the enactment of just laws for her subjects, the first principles of the common law tracing back to her; the celebrated laws of Alfred, and of Edward the Confessor, being in great degree restorations and compilations from the laws of Martia, which were known as the "Martian Statutes." "

     Anne Dunhill, the translator of Lucrezia Marinella's in The Nobility and Excellence of Women and the Defects of Men (1999 University of Chicago Press, first published 1600), cites Boccaccio's Concerning Famous Women as Marinella's probably source on her reference to "Marta Proba, Queen of Britanny" who "was highly skilled in the liberal arts." (P. 87)

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: History of the Kings of Britain Geoffrey of Monmouth (the Historia Regum Britanniae) c. 1136 AD. is summarized here.

115. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

     Journalist, historian, novelist, autobiographer, travel writer, writer for children, Martineau wrote more than 50 books, made many contributions to journals, and had over 1,600 articles published in the Daily News between 1851 and 1866. Several of her works are once again in print including Society in America (1837), How to Observe: Morals and Manners (1838), Retrospect of Western Travel (1838), The Martyr Age of the United States (1839), and Harriet Martineau's Autobiography. Collections of her essays, letters, newspaper articles, and poems can be found in Harriet Martineau in the London Daily News : Selected Contributions 1852-1866 and Harriet Martineau on Women (1985).

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 60), Her [Jane Marcet's] writings were the inspiration of Harriet Martineau, who followed her in the same department of thought at a later period. Miss Martineau was a remarkable woman. Besides her numerous books on political economy, she was a regular contributor to the London Daily News, the second paper in circulation in England, for many years writing five long articles weekly, also to Dicken's Household Words, and the Westminister Review. She saw clearly the spirit and purpose of the Anti-Slavery Movement in this country, and was a regular contributor to the National Anti-Slavery Standard, publishing in New York. "

     Harriet Martineau was also mentioned in Dangers of the Hour.

     References: Todd, p. 454-456

116. Mary I of England (called Mary Tudor 1516-1558 immediate predecessor to Elizabeth I, queen of England 1554-1558)

     Daughter of Henry VIII of England by his first wife, Catherine of Aragón, Mary came to the throne after the short-lived reign of Lady Jane Grey, following the death of her younger half-brother, Edward VI. True to her Catholic upbringing, Mary swept away the religious innovations of her father. She restored the mass and reestablished the authority of the pope, but Parliament refused to restore the church lands seized under Henry VIII. Mary, however, restored the property that the Crown still possessed. Her disastrous marriage in 1554 to Philip II, King of Spain, entangled England in a foreign web. Called Bloody Mary, almost 300 people were condemned to death as a result of trials for heresy during her mercifully short reign. Barren, Mary was succeeded by Elizabeth I.

     In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "With the learning, energy, and perseverance of Lady Jane Grey, Mary and Elizabeth, all are familiar. "

     References: "Mary I," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

117. Reverend Samuel J. May (1797 - 1871)

     An early abolitionist and staunch feminist, May was a UU minister and speaker on the abolitionist circuit. An effective orator, he was repeatedly mobbed. On one trip to Vermont in 1835, he was mobbed five times, one of which turned into a riot. Often mentioned in same context as William Lloyd Garrison, his home was a stop on the Underground Railroad. Praised by Fredrick Douglass as a staunch friend of Black men, he wrote "Recollections of the Anti-Slavery Conflict" near the end of his life.

     May was only one of 4 leading male abolitionist who remained true to woman’s suffrage after the Civil War by insisting on woman’s suffrage along with Negro suffrage. He was co-editor along with Stanton and Anthony of The Revolution, advocating education for Blacks as well as for white women.

     His 1846 sermon on woman’s rights was later reprinted as Woman's Rights Pamphlet #1.

     In Preceeding Causes, Gage writes, "In the State of New York, in 1845, preached a sermon at Syracuse, upon "The Rights and Conditions of Women," in which he sustained their right to take part in political life."

     References: NY History Net

118. Mary Ann and Thomas McClintockand their daughter Elizabeth

     Quaker feminists who helped organize and run the 1848 Seneca Falls Woman's Rights Convention. Mary was secretary of the convention.

     Thomas McClintock was the brother of Sarah Hunt, wife of Richard Hunt until her death in 1842. McClintock rented a house from Richard Hunt, a house that was just across the street from the pharmacy which Thomas owned and operated, at first alone, later with his daughter, Elisabeth, and, later, son, Charles.

     Hicksite Quakers, the McClintocks were involved in numerous reform movements: temperance, better treatment for Native Americans, abolition, church reform (they wanted local congregations to have more autonomy), and, eventually, woman's rights

     Elisabeth McClintock

     Earlier in the 1840s, Lucretia Mott's son-in-law Edward M. Davis had offered M'Clintock an apprenticeship in his silk trading firm in Philadelphia. Though Mott remembered the suggestion as a casual one, M'Clintock thought he genuinely wanted to give her the opportunity to follow the "spirit of enterprize" she felt. Stanton now wrote to Mott to ask if she could have her son-in-law give M'Clintock and one of her friends clerkships in his business, or at least find openings at another company. When his answer came a month later, it was far from what M'Clintock had expected. Davis was not willing to offer her a job, but said his decision had nothing to do with her sex. He explained that because an apprenticeship involved years of menial work at low pay, he would not hire anyone already 28 years old, as M'Clintock was. In addition, Davis's lead salesman Rush Plumly wrote, she had no experience in this kind of work nor did she bring with her any capital to invest in the business.

     M'Clintock recognized that the problems Davis and Plumly pointed out had little to do with her personally. They were instead illustrations of the barriers women faced when trying to enter business. She was considered too old and lacked the appropriate experience precisely because women had been excluded from most types of work; she lacked capital for the same reason and because of the laws which limited the property women could keep in their own names.

     Not everyone in Davis's firm was so business-like in their reaction to M'Clintock's request. He had passed around her letter to his employees, all of whom were men. Their responses were collected and sent back to her via Lucretia Mott. One clerk argued that public prejudices would hurt the company's business: "It would be 'hostile' to the interests of the house in the present state of public sentiment. While all in the company might regret the existence of the senseless objections to woman so participating in commerce and politics, they are not strong enough financially to stem it. The results of such absurd prejudice would hurt the company's business and it would diminish trade." The firm had reason to worry: supporters of slavery, for example, at times threatened to close down merchants who campaigned for abolition.

     Other workers at the company based their objections on the "nature" of women. One of the bookkeepers argued that "The sphere of women has its circumference in domestic and social duties. Women are not naturally strong enough in Mind, to conduct such a concern." Even though Martha Wright had helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention, her 17-year old son believed that "Women are not adapted to the duties of our business." Several of the men even included cartoons making fun of women like M'Clintock.

     M'Clintock and Stanton were dismayed when they received the letters and the cartoons. M'Clintock found the comments particularly painful since many of the men shared her religion, which supposedly supported equal rights, and her interest in social reform. She responded by drawing her own cartoons (see Visual Evidence) and by writing a play in which she used a fictionalized version of her experience to reveal her support for a society which gave women equal opportunity and status.

     In 1852, M'Clintock married Burroughs Phillips, a lawyer whose brother was minister of the Methodist church in which the convention had been held. Phillips actively supported the women's rights movement, joining his wife as an organizer of a women's rights convention in Syracuse. In April 1854, however, Phillips fell from his carriage and received a blow to the head that doctors could not treat. After less than two years of marriage, Elizabeth M'Clintock became a widow.

     A series of changes took place in her life over the next decade. In 1856 her family decided to move back to Pennsylvania in the hope of finding opportunities for their children so the family could continue to live near one another. The M'Clintocks also continued their commitment to abolition, an increasingly contentious issue through the 1850s.

     It was during the Civil War that Elizabeth M'Clintock finally had the opportunity to pursue her interest in business. In 1861 she opened her own store in downtown Philadelphia; her father apparently offered her the same kind of financial assistance he had earlier given her brother. Her shop served middle-class women, offering items such as hosiery, gloves, and shawls. The store was successful enough that M'Clintock developed the reputation of a solid, responsible businesswoman, and she earned enough that she could retire in 1885 to a home in New Jersey. She died in 1896 at age 75, a woman whose life showed both the opportunities women created for themselves in 19th century America and the limits they faced.

     In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote a detailed story about the activities of Lucretia Mott, Martha C. [Coffin] Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Elizabeth, Mary Ann, and Thomas McClintock, and Richard Hunt.

     References: The M'Clintock Family
     Elizabeth M'Clintock

119. Medea

     Medea, devotee of the goddess Hecate, one of the great sorceresses of the ancient world, daughter of King Aeetes of Colchis, and granddaughter of Helios, the sun god, Medea fell in love with Jason and agreed to use her magic to betray her father and to help him acquire the Golden Fleece if he would, in return, marry her. After obtaining the Golden Fleece, Jason along with Medea and her brother Absyrtis fled Colchis, returning to his hometown Iolcus.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Medea gives a more detailed version of the story

     Sarah Miller

     To reference in WCS

120. Maria Mitchell (1818-1889)

     Pioneer astronomer Maria Mitchell was probably the most important American woman scientist of the nineteenth century. With little formal schooling but great support from her family, Mitchell became an observational astronomer. Her observations and calculations were so accurate that she was selected for membership in the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Philosophical Society. Because of her lack of a formal education, Mitchell was reluctant to accept Vassar's invitation for a teaching position when it was founded in 1865. Vassar lured her onto its faculty by offering her a new laboratory for her research. Mitchell, the only female on the faculty, influenced the evolution of higher education when she refused to enforce many of the petty rules, especially for women, that were common at the time. Unlike many other faculty members, she continued her research and pioneered the use of the photography in the study of the stars. Becoming more feminist and anti-religious as she aged, Mitchell was a founder of the Association for the Advancement of Women and served as its president in 1873. Mitchell retired only shortly before she died.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     To reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

     References: Weatherford, p. 231-232

121. Lady Mary Wortley Montague (1689-1762)

     Poet, essayist, letter writer: in an era before newspapers, letters containing news, information, literary analysis, and political commentary were circulated. Being regarded as a good letter writer was a true compliment. In that sense, Lady Montague was a good letter writer: her Turkish Embassy Letters (reprinted 1995) are a combination journal, travelogue, and social commentary about her trip through Turkey in 1716. While there, she learned the art of immunization against small-pox which she took back to England upon her return. Montagu popularized immunization among the upper classes although generations later would remember Jenner as the "discoverer" of immunization. A contributor to the Spectator, she used irony to pillory both women's experience of men and shallow, frivolous women. In Spectator (No. 6), Montagu offered a defense of women and deplored the damage to women done by men. Montagu also published The Nonsense of Common Sense (nine issues between 1737 and 1738), her response to the Opposition paper Common Sense.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

     References: Todd, p. 479-482

     Ester Moore

     First (Founding) President of the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society founded December 9, 1833 on the Garrisonian principle of immediate emancipation.

     To reference in WCS
     To another reference in WCS

     Reference: Mary Grew: Abolitionist and Feminist (1813-1896), Ira V. Brown, Selingsgrove, Susquehanna University Press, 1991, p. 13

122. Lady Sydney Owenson Morgan (1776-1859)

     Novelist, Irish nationalist Poems (1801). Morgan's works include a novel with a sensible heroine which romanticizes the Irish past, St. Clair (1803); an historical novel where the heroine is a troubadour, The Novice of St. Dominick (1806); the famous novel, Wild Irish Girl (1806); Patriotic Sketches of Ireland (1807); a collection of ballads, The Lay of the Irish Harp (1807); another feminist novel with a learned heroine, Ida of Athens (1809); a novel set in exotic India, The Missionary (1811); four novels about Ireland, O'Donnel (1814), Florence Macarthy (1818), Absenteeism (1825), and The O'Briens and the O'Flahertys (1827); two travelogues, France (1817) and Italy (1821); another attack on reactionary regimes, Salvator Rosa (1824); and 2 "trivial hotch-potches" The Book of the Boudoir (1829) and Pages from my Autobiography (1859). Woman and her Master (1840) is a fascinating historical quest for the deeds of women.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67-68), Gage wrote, "In England, Lady Morgan's "Woman and her Master" appeared; - a work filled with philosophical reflections, and of the same general bearing as Miss Weber's. "

     References: Blain, p. 762-763

123. Lucrezia Morinella Vacca (Marinella or Marinelli) (1571-1653)

     Author of numerous literary works, both poetic and scholarly, Lucrezia is probably best known today for writing one of the earliest defenses of women, On the Nobility and Excellence of Women in response to a misogynistic tract, Giuseppe Passi's The Defects of Women. The first part defends women while the second part exposes the inadequacies of men. Published in 1600, the same year as Moderata Fonte's The Worth of Women, both books have come back into print after an absence of nearly 400 years and can be purchased from the University of Chicago Press in English translation.

     In the introduction to The Nobility and Excellence of Women, and The Defects and Vices of Men (1600) by Lucrezia Marinella (Ed. and trans. by Anne Dunhill, Intro by Letizia Panizza, Chicage: U. of Chicago Press, 1999) Panizza writes, "The French Protestant scholar and philosopher Pierre Bayle, author of the major encyclopedia of the late seventeenth century, Dictionnaire historique et critique, supplies a brief entry for Marinella, concentrating on The Nobility and Excellence of Women. He admires her high intelligence while remaining doubtful about her subject matter. Indeed, what he says about Marie de Gournay's The Equality of Men and Women could be applied with equal relevance to Marinella: "A person of her sex must scrupulously avoid these kinds of disputes." The victories that Italian women gained in challenging men intellectually were thus disregarded." Gage referred to Bayle's Dictionaire in WCS, so perhaps that is where she learned about Marinella.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "While these sturdy male defenders of the rights of woman met with many opponents, some going so far as to assert that women were beings not endowed with reason, they were sustained by many vigorous writers among women. Italy, then the foremost literary country of Europe, possessed many women of learning, one of whom, Lucrezia Morinella, a Venetian lady, wrote a work entitled, "The Nobleness and Excellence of Women, together with the Faults and Imperfections of Men." "

     References: The Worth of Women Moderata Fonte (Modesta Pozzo), 1600, reprinted by University of Chicago Press, 1996
     Buck, entry for Marinelli Vacca, Lucrezia

124. Lucretia and James Mott (1793-1880)

     Feminist, abolitionist, minister, advocate for peace and social justice. In 1818, Mott became a minister in the Society of Friends, giving her first public address on behalf of woman's rights, anti-slavery reform, Native American rights, religious freedom, and personal and social tolerance. Mott's reformist zeal was deeply rooted in her Quaker religion. Denied a seat at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840, Mott and a similarly situated Elizabeth Cady Stanton, agreed to hold a woman's rights convention. Eventually, Mott and Stanton would hold this convention - we know of it as the Seneca Fall's Woman's Rights Convention of 1848. Mott also helped found Swarthmore College, an early co-educational institution of higher learning. Her speeches have been collected and reprinted in Lucretia Mott: Her Complete Speeches and Sermons (1980).

     In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote a detailed story about the activities of Lucretia Mott, Martha C. [Coffin] Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann McClintock, and Richard Hunt.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66-67), Gage wrote, "In 1849, "Lucretia Mott published a discourse on woman, delivered in the Assembly Building, Philadelphia, in answer to a Lyceum lecture in which Richard H. Dana, of Boston, was giving in many of the chief cities, ridiculing the idea of political equality for woman. "

     To reference in WCS
     To another reference in WCS
     To a third reference in WCS

     References: Almost any biographical dictionary

125. Amen-Nofri_Ari [Nefertari, Mehkitarian]

     "The Great Royal Wife," "The Lady of Two Lands," "The Mistress of Upper and Lower Egypt," and even "God's wife," Nefertari was the beloved, dark-skinned, and favorite wife of the powerful, long-lived, and long-ruling Pharaoh Ramases II of ancient Egypt. Described as "Lady of Charm," "Sweet of Love," and "Rich of Praise," Ramases dedicated the "small temple" at Abu Simbel in Nubia both to her and the goddess Hathor.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: The Endangered Queen

126. Clarina Irene Howard Nichols (1810-1885)

     Journalist, reformer, woman's rights activist. Divorced from Justin Carpenter in 1843, she began writing for the Windham County Democrat. Married to newspaper publisher George W. Nichols in 1843, she edited the Democrat, gradually broadening the paper's range to include literary pieces and editorials in support of various reform movements, including Married Woman's Property Rights and, later, woman's suffrage. Vice-President at the Syracuse National (Women's Rights) Convention in 1852, the convention where Gage made her debut. Nichols was an early, staunch woman's rights activist who decried woman's legal liability, especially the right of men to take a woman's property from her after marriage. Nichols also decried the double standards due to custom. The Democrat ceased publication in 1853, Nichols along with her 2 older sons traveled to the Kansas Territory. She returned to Vermont and moved to Kansas with her husband, who died in the summer of 1855. She continued to contribute articles on woman's rights to the Lawrence Herald of Freedom and the Topeka Kansas Tribune, to travel and speak on behalf of woman's rights, to successfully lobby the Wyandotte constitutional convention, to campaign for the ratification of the state's constitution, and to address the state legislature on women's issues. During the Civil War, she moved to Washington DC to work at a home for the relief of destitute "Colored Women and Children." She returned to Kansas in 1866, and in late 1871 moved to Mendocino County, California. She continued her woman's rights activism throughout her life.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 66), Gage wrote, "In 1847, "Clarina Howard Nichols, in her husband's paper, addressed to the voters of the State of Vermont a series of editorials, setting forth the injustice of the property disabilities of married women. "

     References: McHenry, p. 303; Stanton, p. 118n

127. Mary Sargent Neal Gove Nichols (1810-1843)

     writer and health reformer and educator. Divorced in 1831 from Hiram Gove, Sargent taught and sewed to earn a living. Four aborted pregnancies and general ill-health led to her interest in medicine. While working as a health practitioner and running a boarding house, she wrote 2 novels and several short stories. Her pioneering physiology lectures educated women about their bodies. She campaigned against women's "unconditional obedience," for married women's property rights, and for education for all women. In 1855 she wrote the autobiographical novel, a feminist polemic, Mary Lyndon. She moved to England in 1861 where she wrote 2 more novels.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63 ), Gage wrote, "Mary Gove Nichols gave public lectures upon anatomy in the United States in 1838. "

     References: Balin, p. 793

128. Florence Nightengale (1820-1910)

     Polemical and religious writer best known for her work during the Crimean War as a nurse to British troops. When Nightengale arrived on the front with 38 trained nurses, she found the military hospital overrun with fleas and rats, and the sewers overfilled. Within months, her sanitary reforms which she accomplished over the objection of military authorities, dramatically cut the fatality rate. Upon returning home, she launched a commission to investigate medical conditions throughout the military as a whole. Pioneering a statistical approach to analysis, Nightengale showed that most soldiers lost their lives to disease rather than to wounds. Her philosophical and religious works have recently been collected and reprinted in Cassandra and Suggestions for Thought (New York University Press, 1992).

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     References: Todd, p. 499-501

     Mrs. Nind

     To reference in WCS

129. Rebecca Nurse (1622-1692)

     Rebecca Nurse, reputed to be prudent and charitable, an accomplished wife and mother to 8 children, a devout church goer with an unimpeachable character, lived a very uneventful live until the spring of 1692 when she was accused of witchcraft. Almost completely deaf, Mrs. Nurse was questioned while in her sick bed regarding her association with witchcraft. Since Mrs. Nurse was deaf, she didn't understand the questions and her answers to the questions were unintelligible. She did however deny any connection with witchcraft. The commission investigating her decided that she did not take the charges against her seriously. Taken from her sick bed, she was questioned in court. Records indicate that she understood none of the court proceedings. Although forty persons at the hazard of their own lives testified to her character, she was convicted of witchcraft. A reprieve from the governor was voided by the church. After all, what better spokeswoman, what better seducer of the innocent, could the devil have than a pillar of the community who spent a long life in service to God and country, a devout, sick, deaf, old woman. At least, that's what the church said. At the age of 70, on July 19, 1692, Rebecca Nurse was hung.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: The Devil in Massachusetts, A Modern Enquiry into the Salem Witch Trials, Marion L. Starkey (Anchor Books, 1949)
     Witches and Other Goblins

130. Princess Olga of Kievan Rus, eventually St. Olga (c. 890 - 969)

     Possibly descended from the Viking, called Varangians" by the Slavic tribes, who came alternately as invaders, conquerors, traders, and settlers, like the many of the Kievan Rus aristocracy, the widow of Grand Prince of Kiev, Igor I, became regent of Kiev during her son's minority (945 to 964). Widowed as a result of her husband's murder by the Drevlian's who resented paying him tribute, Olga took revenge on the Drevlians by killing their envoys and burning their towns. She then abolished the annual tribute-collecting journeys made by the Kievan prince, replacing it with a uniform system of taxation and special government tax-collectors.

     Around 957, Olga traveled to Constantinople and was baptized in the Christian faith, under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor. Her baptism did not lead to the conversion of her people, but established the Eastern Orthodox Church in Rus. She insisted that the Russian Church be granted autonomy; she did not want Rus to become a Byzantine vassal state.

     Olga was the first Russian female ruler, and she was called "wise". The Russian Orthodox Church later had Olga and her grandson, Vladimir, canonized.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Princess Olga (of Kievan Rus)

     Miss Oliver

     To reference in WCS

     Mary Osgood

     To reference in WCS

131. Thomas Paine(1737, Norfolk, England - 1809, New York City, NY)

     "In order to gain a clear and just idea of the design and end of government, let us suppose a small number of persons settled in some sequestered part of the earth,---."

     Paine proceeds with his theoretical analysis of the general construction of society and its members. Most founding fathers used the word "man" in their discussions of human society and government while, as noted above, Paine used the word "person." The word "man" can be used to eliminate the vast majority of the people: it is ambiguous and most people accept the particular meaning that it is assigned by the people around them. The word "person" does not have the vagueness the word "man" has: "person" is unequivocally inclusive -- it includes men, women, and children. Paine used the word "people" to clearly refer to all members of the human family. There are several places you can observe this distinction, a usage and a distinction which is present in all of Paine's major works. For example, check out The Rights of Man, last chapter. In his works Paine writes of existing, practical and theoretical conditions. Paine was not for women's rights, worker's rights, or slaves' rights. He was for equal rights for women, men, boys and girls regardless of any previous or existing social condition.

     Few of Paine's biographers realized this distinction. One that did was J. W. Skelton, Ph.D., author of TOM PAINE: The Founding Father America Disowned (1993). Toward the end of his introduction Skelton says; "--he, [Paine,] was too busy about his contemporaries' business, and his "sons" and "daughters"---that is to say, your and my business. And the name of that business was freedom---literally, freedom for all!"

     Private communication with Sherwood Smith, Thomas Paine Friends, see Man (about ½ way down the page)

132. Mary S. Parker (1785-1841, born in Lexington, Mass.)

     Charter member of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, Parker presided over the first two Anti-Slavery Conventions of American Women. After 1837 Parker began clashing with Maria Weston Chapman and became leader of the anti-Garrison group in the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society. It was at Parker's request that Sarah Grimke wrote her Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman. As President of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, Parker had the letters published in the New England Spectator beginning on July 19, 1837.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

     References: Ceplair, p. 86 (Note to me: see also book on Mary Grew)

     Nelly Pentwenzle

     To reference in WCS

133. Madam Pape- Carpantier (1815-1878, mispelled as Pepe-Cappentier)

     Renowned French educator and inventor of a boulier numerateur, an early calculator using colored balls.

     Active in the creation of an nationwide nursery school system, (which enabled the children of the poor to recieve a pre-school education while their mother's worked outside the home) Frenchwoman Pape-Carpantier convinced the government to require teachers in state-supported nursery schools to obtain a high school education, opening the doors of education and employment to French women.

     To quote in Dangers of the Hour

     Reference: Ajutum Stanley, Mothers and Daughters of Invention, Rutgers University Press, 1995, p. 436
     Pape-Carpantier

134. Parker Pillsbury

     Abolitionist and feminist/woman's rights activist.

     "Of the leading male abolitionists before the war, only four - Samuel J. May, Robert Purvis, Parker Pillsbury, and Stephen S. Foster - remained even minimally loyal to women's rights after the war by insisting on their enfranchisement. All the rest, including Wendell Phillips, George William Curtis, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Horace Greeley, William Lloyd Garrison, Gerrit Smith, Theodore Tilton, Fredrick Douglass, and the brothers Samuel and Henry Blackwell, did not want any aspect of the "women's question" to complicate their work of putting the country back together"

     Joan Hoff, Law, Gender, and Injustice NYU Press, 1991, page 148

     To quote in Dangers of the Hour

135. Ann Preston (1813-1872)

     Graduate of the first class of female medical students at the Quaker-founded Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania. After graduation, she stayed at the College as professor of physiology and hygiene until the college closed for the Civil War. During the war, she proceeded with her plans to add a hospital to the college so that students could get first hand experience before graduation. In 1866, Preston was appointed as the first female dean of the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania (1866)

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

     References: Edgerly, p. 469-470

136. Sarah Pugh (1800-1884)

     When the World's Anti-Slavery Convention, which met in London in 1840, excluded female delegates, it was the Quaker teacher Sarah Pugh, a representative from the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, who wrote the protest and Lucretia Mott who led the public attack on the policy. Pugh would go on to hold the office of President in the Society for most of its duration (1833-1870), and along with Mary Grew was one of the most active members. A close friend, along with Susan B. Anthony and Lucretia Mott, of Ernestine Rose, Pugh was also a grand-aunt and a role model for the social reformer, Florence Kelley.

     An active woman's rights reformer, a few of her other accomplishments include:
     Delegate to World Anti-Slavery Conference, held in London in 1840, along with Stanton and Mott
     Signed 1850 Call to Worcester Women’s Rights Convention
     On Committee of Arrangements to celebrate 20th anniversary of Worcester National Woman’s Rights Convention (1000+ people attended)
     Signed 1876 Declaration of Rights for Women

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

     References: Berkins & Norton, p. 132, Stanton, p. 79, Suhl, p. 262, Solomon, p. 67, Ira V. Brown, Mary Grew, Abolitionist and Feminist (1813-1896), [Selingsgrove (Pa.): Susquehanna University Press, 1991] p. 14-15

     Reference: Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 3, pp. 104-105

     John Paul Ribera

     see entries for Count Segur and de Costa

     Caroline Gilkey Rogers

     To reference in WCS

137. Marie-Jeanne Phillipon Roland (1754-1793)

     French woman of letters. During the French Revolution, Roland and her husband belonged to the moderate Girondist party. She contributed to the newsletters Le Courrier de Lyon and Patriote francaise. She presided over a Republican salon and was acquainted with the leading figures of the revolution. Acclaimed by the people when she challenged the king in a letter, she and her husband were vilified when they voted against execution for the king. Roland was executed in November, 1793. Her surviving written work, Memoires (1793), was translated into English in 1989 as The Memoirs of Mme Roland.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 61), Gage wrote, "This period of the eighteenth century was famous for the execution of women on account of their radical political opinions, Madame Roland, the leader of the liberal party in France, going to the guillotine with the now famous words upon her lips, "Oh, Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!" "

     To reference in WCS

     References: Buck, entry for Roland, Marie-Jeanne Phillipon

138. Ernestine L. Rose (1810-1892)

     A Jewish immigrant from Poland who became an acknowledged "atheist" and woman's rights lobbyist, Rose became an early woman's rights activist when she went door-to-door trying to round up support for New York legislator Judge Thomas Hertell's Married Woman's Property Act. In this early woman's rights campaign, Rose garnered only 5 signatures for her petition in her 5 months of effort. Eventually, in 1848, the landmark New York legislation was passed. Rose lectured in at least 23 states for the "recognition of human rights, without distinction of sect, party, sex, or color." With other New York suffragists, she launched a suffrage petition campaign in 1851. Returning to Europe in 1869, one month after receiving her American citizenship, Rose "retired" from an active public life, only occasionally making an appearance on behalf of woman's rights.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

     References: Gaylor, p. 63-72

     Mary Rove

     19th century abolitionist

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

139. Girolamo Ruscelli

     Professional Venetian writer, his works include a book on Italian grammar, a book of maps, and an extremely popular book (under the pseudonym of Alessio Piedmontese, 104 editions were released between its publication in 1555 and 1699) that is a mishmash of alchemy, results of early science experiments, and traditional medical (herbal pharmacopoeia), metallurgical, and botanical techniques

     He also sang the praises of Vittoria Colonna in Tutte le Rime della Illustriss. et Eccellentiss. Signora Vittoria Colonna. Marchesana di Pescara. (1558) (Tutte?? the Poetry of the Illustrious and Excellent Miss Vittoria Colona, Marchesana di Pescara).

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, " In less than fifty years (1552) Ruscelli brought out a similar work [referring to Agrippa's Nobility and Excellence of Women] based on the Platonic Philosophy."

     References: first paragraph from http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Rampart/7076/jmphtm18.html (Well, it used to be there.)
     Second paragraph from: Ruscelli, Girolamo Tutte le Rime della Illustriss. et Eccellentiss. Signora Vittoria Colonna. Marchesana di Pescara. Con l'espositione del Signor Rinaldo Corso, nuovamente mandate in luce da Girolamo Ruscelli. In Venetia, per Giovan Battista Et Melchior Sessa Fratelli. 1558. (Tutte?? The Poetry of the Illustrious and Excellent Miss Vittoria Colona, Marchesana di Pescara) (I hope I translated this right.)

140. Sabine maidens

     According to the classical Roman historian Livy (late 1st cent. B.C.E. to early 1st cent. C.E. ) in his History of Rome, the earliest female inhabitants of Rome were the Sabine women whom the Roman men kidnapped and raped sometime around the 8th cent. B.C.E. When the Sabine men attempted to retrieve their daughters, sisters, and mothers, the Sabine women reconciled their husbands with their birth families, avoiding a blood-feud and war.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Women's Life in Greece and Rome: Rape of the Sabine Women

141. George Sand (Amandine-Aurore Lucille Dupin, Baronne Dudevant, 1804-1876)

     Prolific and professional French novelist who produced 2 books annually from 1831 to 1876. This staunch feminist's early works were models for later English women writers and were thoroughly panned by a segment of male English reviewers. Her major feminist works are Indiania (1832), Valentine (1833), Leila (1833), and Jaques (1834).

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     Reference: Blain, p. 943-944; Buck, entry for Sand, George

142. Sappho (c. 625 B.C.E.)

     Considered by many the greatest lyrical poet of Western Civilization, Sappho's work is largely lost to us - only a few hundred lines of poetry remain. Although she was a prolific writer and her work was collected into nine books around the third century B.C.E, the Church deemed most of her work obscene and burned it. She invented a 21-string lyre which she used to accompany herself when she sang her poems.

     In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "In poetry, Sappho was honored with the title of the Tenth Muse. "

     Reference: U. of Maryland inform Database

143. Henrietta Sargent

     Member of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society and a close friend of the Garrisons

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

     Reference: Ceplair, p. 286

144. Hon. John Savage, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court

     Meeting with Alexis de Toqueville during his tour of America, Toqueville's interview appears in Democracy in America on the entry for July 17. At that time, Savage has already been a lawyer, district attorney, member of Congress, and member of NY state legislature.

     In Preceeding Causes, Gage writes, "In the winter of 1836, a bill was introduced into the New York Legislature by Judge Hertell, to secure married women their rights of property. This bill was drawn up under the direction of Hon. John Savage, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, and Hon. John C. Spencer, one of the revisers of the statutes of New York. "

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

     Reference: Toqueville's Democracy in America (This one disappeared, too.)

145. Anna Maria Schureman (more ofetn spelled Schurman 1607-1678)

     Considered the leading intellectual woman of her century, Schurman mastered several languages including Dutch, Latin, Greek, French, and Hebrew, was a skilled musician, a trained theologian, and a reluctant writer. Her Amica Dissertatio (Friendly Dissertation 1638) addresses the question of whether the study of letters befits a Christian woman. A conservative feminist, Schurman advocated education for women. A Learned Maid is her other great proto-feminist work.

     In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Anna Maria Schureman was a sculptor, engraver, musician, and painter; she especially excelled in miniature painting. "

     Reference: Wilson, p. 1128 (vol 2), Buck, entry for Schurman

146. Catharine Sedgwick (1789-1867)

     Sedgwick, a novelist and short story writer, was a leading figure in early American literature. Her works include: A New-England Tale (1822), Redwood (1824), Hope Leslie (1827), and The Linwoods (1835). These strongly anti-Calvinist works, obviously influenced by her Unitarian ideals, appealed to liberal Protestants dissatisfied with Puritanism and its legacy.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     Reference: Davidson, p. 785

     Count Segur

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 55), Gage wrote, "Alexander's History of Women, John Paul Ribera's work upon Women, the two huge quartos of De Costa upon the same subject, Count Segur's "Women: Their Condition and Influence," and many other works showed the drift of the new age."

147. Semiramis (9th century BCE)

     Popular name of warrior Queen Sammuramat of Assyria about whom more legends than facts are known. She extended the boundaries of land-locked Assyria to four distant seas, conquered Babylonia (where she commemorated her success by erecting a monument, the famed Hanging Gardens of Babylon) and Ethiopia, then repulsed an army from India.

     In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Although so much has been said of woman's unfitness for public life, it can be seen, from Semiramis to Victoria, that she has a peculiar fitness for governing."

     Lady Morgan in Woman and Her Master (1840) discusses Semiramis, basing her writings of the works of Diodorus Siculus. Morgan's work, basically a history of women in antiquity proposed an early matriarchy.

     To reference in "Cleopatra's Needles" (1878)

     Reference: Salmonson, p. 232

148. May [ Mary] Wright Sewell [Seweall]

     Leader of Indiana's 19th century woman's suffrage movement, Sewell's women's rights activism lead her into numerous projects emphasizing education for girls (in 1883 forming a high school in Indianapolis for girls where they could get the same education for boys which prepared them to take the Harvard entrance examinations), women and work, women and the law, and woman's suffrage. Sewall also contributed the chapter on Indiana to The History of Woman Suffrage by Anthony, Stanton, and Gage.

     One of her largest projects was to help organize the 1892-1983 World's Congress of Representative Women display at the Chicago Columbian Exposition which drew 150,000 women from 27 countries who heard 330 scheduled speakers. The collected and printed speeches filled 6 volumes and was a snap-shot of the status of women throughout the world in 1893.

     The following women signed "The Protest Against the Unjust Interpretation of the Constitution Presented on Behalf of the Women of the United States by the Officers of the National Woman Suffrage Association to the President of the United States, the Governors of the States, and other Federal and State Officials, on the occasion of the Constitutional Centennial in Philadelphia, September 17th, 1887"
           Susan B. Anthony (NY), Acting President
           Matilda Joslyn Gage (NY), Vice-President-at-Large
           Rachel G. Foster (Pa), Corresponding Secretary
           Mary Wright Seweall (Ind), Chairman Executive Committee
           Lillie Devereux Blake (NY), Vice-President for New York, Chairman Presentation Committee

     Reference: Weatherford, American Suffragist, pp. 163

     Frances E. Willard and Mary A. Livermore (eds.), American Women: Fifteen Hundred Biographies, with over 1400 Portraits. A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of the Lives and Achievements of American Women During the Nineteenth Century Volumes 1 & 2. Copyright 1897 by Mast, Crowell, & Kirkpatrick. New York, Chicago, Springfield, Ohio., pp 643-645.

     Harriette R. Shattuck

     To reference in WCS

     Deborah Shaw

     19th century abolitionist

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

149. Queen of Sheba

     "1When the queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon, (fame due to the name of the Lord), she came to test him with hard questions. 2 She came to Jerusalem with a very great retinue, with camels bearing spices, and very much gold, and precious stones; and when she came to Solomon, she told him all that was on her mind. 3 Solomon answered all her questions; there was nothing hidden from the king that he could not explain to her. 4 When the queen of Sheba had observed all the wisdom of Solomon, the house that he had built, 5 the food of his table, the seating of his officials, and the attendance of his servants, their clothing, his valets, and his burnt offerings that he offered at the house of the Lord, there was no more spirit in her.

     6 So she said to the king, “The report was true that I heard in my own land of your accomplishments and of your wisdom, 7 but I did not believe the reports until I came and my own eyes had seen it. Not even half had been told me; your wisdom and prosperity far surpass the report that I had heard. 8 Happy are your wives! † Happy are these your servants, who continually attend you and hear your wisdom! 9 Blessed be the Lord your God, who has delighted in you and set you on the throne of Israel! Because the Lord loved Israel forever, he has made you king to execute justice and righteousness.” 10 Then she gave the king one hundred twenty talents of gold, a great quantity of spices, and precious stones; never again did spices come in such quantity as that which the queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon."

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Oxford English Bible, 1 Kings, Chapter 10, Verses 1 - 10

150. 

     May [Mary] French Sheldon

     Explorer and author. French-Sheldon co-authored with Bebe Bwana' Sultan to Sultan : Adventures Among the Masai and Other Tribes of East Africa, a book about her travels in east Africa.

     To reference in WCS

151. Sibyls

     Legendary divinely-inspired seeresses of late classical Roman who prophesied the future were designate them by the places where they were said to dwell. Thus the Persian, Libyan, Delphian, Cimmerian, Erythræan, Samarian, Cumæan, Hellespont, Phrygia, and Tibur Sibyls. The Sibyls most highly venerated in Rome were those of Cumæ and Erythræa. The oracles and predictions ascribed to the sibyls were carefully collected and jealously guarded in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and were consulted only in times of grave crises.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Sibylline Oracles

152. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes (1748-1836)

     Sieyès attracted attention in the early days of the French Revolution with a pamphlet, Qu'est-ce que le tiers état? (What Is the Third Estate? 1789). By being cautious, moderate, and usually noncommittal, he remained a figure of some influence through all the stages of the Revolution. He was a member of the Estates-General (1789), the National Convention (1792-95), the Council of Five Hundred (1795-99), and the Directory (1799). Sieyès was one of those who helped launch the political career of Napoleon after the latter had won popularity by his military victories. Together with the French statesman Pierre Roger Ducos and Napoleon, he became a member of the Consulate in 1799. Sieyès framed a national constitution for the regime of Napoleon, but Napoleon greatly revised it, and Sieyès subsequently resigned. After Napoleon's downfall, Sieyès was exiled in 1815 but returned to France in 1830.

     On page 21 of The Moral History of Women, Legouve writes:

           " "The Revolution broke out; two eminent minds, Condorcet* and Sieyes+, demanded, one in the Assembly, and the other through the press, the domestic and even political emancipation of women; but their protestations were stifled by the strong voices of the three great exponents of the eighteenth century, Mirabeau, Danton, and Robespierre.
           Mirabeau, in his work on Public Education, takes ground decidedly against the admission of women to any social office, and also against their presence in any public assembly.
           Danton, the sensualistic disciple of Diderot, saw little in them except sensuality.
           Robespierre directly opposed, and caused the rejection of, the proposition of Sieyes, and afterwards not a line from his pen, not a word from his mouth, went forth to protest against the dependence of woman in the family. The great apostle of equality forgot in his plan of emancipation only half of the human race."
           * Journal de la Societe, of 1789
           + I have not been able to find in the Moniteur the discourse of Sieyes; but it is under the date of '91, in the remarkable work of M. Lairtuillier on the Women of the Revolution, Introduction, p. 18."

           Elsewhere in History Legouve gives the following title: E. Lairtullier, Les femmes celebres de 1789 à 1795, et leur influence dans la revolution, pour servir de suite et de complement à toutes les histoires de la revolution française (Paris: S.n., 1840). (note change in spelling of author's name).

     for quote, see entry for Charolette Corday

     Reference: "Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

     Ernest Legouve, The Moral History of Women, Rudd and Carleton, Paris, 1860

153. Lydia Huntley Sigourney (1791-1865)

     Poet, editor, autobiographer. Sigourney's career began when she took up writing to support her family. Among her dozens of books (many children's books) are Moral Pieces (1815), Zinsendorff, and Other Poems (1835), The Weeping Willow (1847), and her autobiography, Letters of Life (1866).

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     Reference: Buck, entry for Sigourney, Lydia Huntley

154. Mary Fairfax Somerville (1780-1872)

     Scientist and mathematician. Granted only one year's formal education and inspired with stories of great woman scholars of the ancient world (as told by her uncle, Dr. Somerville), she entertained herself by solving the mathematical puzzles in women's journals. Against her parent's wishes, Mary learned geometry and algebra by borrowing books from her younger brother's tutor. Widowed with two small children, her first mathematical prize was a silver medal for her solution to a problem on Diophantine equations in William Wallace's Mathematical Repository. Her second husband, William Somerville, was a Fellow of the Royal Society. He assisted her in her work while she helped him with his interests in geology. Several papers quickly followed. In 1827, Somerville was asked by the President of the Society for Diffusing Useful Knowledge to translate Laplace's mathematically rigorous Mecanique Celeste (c. 1808) into English. Somerville's Mechanism of the Heavens (c. 1832) was much more than a translation of Laplace. She added her own "Preliminary Dissertation" which included the basic mathematics necessary to understand Laplace's work, a history of the subject, an explanation of Laplace's work, and her own drawings, diagrams, mathematical derivations, and proofs. Mechanism of the Heavens became one of the standard texts of higher mathematics and astronomy for the rest of the nineteenth century. Her second work, On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences showed the interdependence of mechanics, magnetism, electricity, heat, sound, and optics. She also discussed meteorology and climatology. Her book, Physical Sciences (1834) aimed to make the laws of the material world understandable to women and was even more successful than Mechanism. Honors began to me heaped upon her: along with Caroline Herschel, Somerville was unanimously awarded honorary membership in the Royal Astronomical Society in 1835. Her most successful book, Physical Geography (1848), lead to even more honors. Her last book, On Molecular and Microscopic Science (1869), was published when Somerville was 89 years old. An out spoken feminist, Somerville was the first signer on John Stuart Mill's petition for women's suffrage.

     In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Mrs. Somerville's renown has long been spread over both continents as one of the first mathematicians of the present age."

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     Reference: Alic, p. 132, Alic, p. 180-190

     Hon. John C. Spencer, one of the revisers of the statutes of New York

     In the winter of 1836, a bill was introduced into the New York Legislature by Judge Hertell, to secure married women their rights of property. This bill was drawn up under the direction of Hon. John Savage, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, and Hon. John C. Spencer, one of the revisers of the statutes of New York.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

     Robert Spencer

     To * reference in "On The Progress Of Education And Industrial Avocations For Women" (1871)

155. Rebecca B. Spring

     On March 15, 1860, the eve of his execution, John Brown wrote to New Jersey's Rebecca Spring, "Your letter gave me great comfort to know that my body would be taken from this land of chains.... I am willing to die in the cause of liberty, if I had ten thousand lives I would willingly lay them all down for the same cause."

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

     Reference: The [John Brown} Conspirators Biographies

156. Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902)

     Woman's rights advocate, feminist, suffragist, journalist, and lecturer. Trained by her father, Judge Cady in the law, Stanton became an early abolitionist and married fellow abolitionist Henry B. Stanton. In 1848, Stanton, along with Lucretia Mott organized the Seneca Falls Woman's Rights Convention. Stanton wrote the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions where the convention called from higher education and professional opportunities for women, property rights for married women, the right to divorce, the right to custody of children, and, most controversial, the right to vote. Continuing her abolitionist work, Stanton became a fervent woman's rights advocate, helping to found the National Woman's Suffrage Association after the civil war. Stanton co-author of the first 4 volumes of the History of Woman's Suffrage (??) with Susan B. Anthony and Matilda Joslyn Gage. Becoming more radical as she aged, Stanton edited the 2 part The Woman's Bible (1895??). Her best speech is reputed to be The Solitude of Self (1892), the final speech of her life which was delivered to the American Congress.

     In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote a detailed story about the activities of Lucretia Mott, Martha C. [Coffin] Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann McClintock, and Richard Hunt.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 64-65)

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Davidson, p. 845-846

157. Lucy Stone (1818-1893)

     Feminist editor and abolitionist. Graduating from Oberlin College in 1847, Lucy Stone was the first Mass. woman to be awarded a college degree. She immediately began speaking on woman's rights and abolition. She retained her name after marriage to Henry Brown Blackwell. During their wedding ceremony, he issued a statement condemning the disabilities of women after marriage. Editor of The Woman's Journal, the official suffrage publication for nearly 50 years, Stone became a leader in the conservative suffrage organization, the American Woman's Suffrage Association after it broke away from the National Women's Suffrage Association in 1870. She continued working for women's rights until her health gave out - her last speech, given shortly before she died, was presented at the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67), Gage wrote, "Lucy Stone, a graduate of Oberlin, made her first speech on Woman's Rights the same year [1847] in her brother's church at Brookfield, Mass."

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Blain, p. 1033

     Martha Storrs

     19th century abolitionist [Martha Trueheart Storrs (1804-1887)??] Margaret Storrs Grierson ?

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

158. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-1896)

     Novelist, short story writer, essayist. Best known for Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), Stowe wrote numerous works on a variety of topics. Her works include regional stories, The Mayflower (1843) and Sara Lawson's Oldtown Fireside Stories (1872); historical novels, The Minister's Wooing (1859), The Pearl of Orr's Island (1862), and Oldtown Folks (1869); novels of manners, My Wife and I (1871), Pink and White Tyranny (1871), and We and Our Neighbors (1873); and domestic advice , Household Papers and Stories (1865) and An American Woman's Home (1869). A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1854) documented the information in Uncle Tom's Cabin and Dred, a Tale of Dismal Swamp (1856), was another anti-slavery novel.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     Reference: Davidson, p. 856-858

     Louisa Suthworth (Stanton lists a Louisa Southworth as a member of The Woman's Bible revising committee.)

     The Anti-Imperialistic Petition By Louisa Southworth National Single Taxer (Feb. 1900)

     To reference in WCS

159. William Thomson

     See entry for Anne Wheeler

160. Thermuthis

     In the biblical story of Moses, the deliverer of the Hebrew people from the bondage in Egypt, the Egyptian Pharoah orders all newborn Hebrew males to be put to death. Disregarding the Pharoah's orders, Hebrew midwives allow the newborn male children to live. Moses' mother places him in a basket and places the basket along the weeds on the side of the Nile River. Pharoah's daughter spies the basket and claims the child as her own (Exodus 1 - 2). Nowhere in the Bible is the Pharoah's daughter given a name. The name, Thermustis, comes to use from the Roman Jewish historian Josephus in Book II, chapter 1 of his Antiquities of the Jews.

     In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "In Egypt the throne descended in the female line. The curious story of Moses as related in the bible and by Josephus was due to this Egyptian custom. Thermuthis, the King's daughter, who saved him, presented the child to her father as her adopted son and heir to the throne, and until grown to manhood had power to protect him from the machinations of the wily high priest who sought his life. "

     Reference: Josephus in Book II, chapter 1 of his Antiquities of the Jews (Another one bit the dust.)

     Samuel Tillman

     To Quote in the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box

     Thracia

     To reference in WCS

161. Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832 - 1917)

     An early anthropologist, in his Primitive Culture. Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Language, Art and Custom, (1871), London (Murray), Tylor hypothesized that early religions were a way for people to interpret dreams, sleep, and death and as society became more complex, men’s religious ideas became more complex . (Very ethnocentric, he would have used the terms like primitive and more advanced.) He believed that man’s religions could be arranged from primitive to advanced in the following hierarchy:

     
     Christianity
     Judaism
     Islam
     Buddhism
     Hinduism
     animism

     
     He created the anthropology Department at Oxford University and was knighted for his effort in 1912. Other works include Anahuac (1861), Researches into the Early History of Mankind (1865), Primitive Culture (1871), Anthropology (1881).

     In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "Tylor, "Primitive Culture;" Lubbock, "Pre-Historic Times and Origin of Civilization," and numerous other investigators agree with Bachofen in the statement that in primitive society the family, the state, and the Church, were all under woman's control; that society started, in fact, under the absolute power and authority of woman. "

     Reference: EB Tylor
     Souls, Dreams, Death, Ecstasy (E. B. Tylor's Theory of Animism - sorry but the link seems to have died)

162. Margaret Ann Newton Van Cott (1830-1914)

     Upon her husband's death in 1866, Van Cott joined the Methodist Episcopal Church and began leading prayer groups at the interdenominational mission founded by Phoebe Palmer. Her success at winning souls convinced a local clergyman to ask her to lead a revival. As word of her success continued to spread, she was asked to appear at more revivals. In Sept 1868, she was ranted an "Exhorter's License" and in March 1869, the quarterly conference granted her a "Local Preachers' License", becoming the first woman licensed to preach in the Methodist Episcopal Church in the US.

     Van Cott continued to preach and lead revivals throughout her life, traveling 3000 to 7000 miles each year for 30 years and averaging about 2000 converts per year.

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 3, pp. 506-507

     Lady Varney

     To reference in WCS

163. Veleda

     According to the author of the website Women of the North , "Tacitus, in The Histories, describes a seeress called Veleda, a woman of a tribe of the Bructeres. She flourished from the latter days of the Emperor Nero into the middle part of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, and during this time, she was a heroine among all the tribes of Germania. 'Veleda' is believed to be a professional title, not her name; it's connected with the Gaulish verb that means 'to see', referring to her clear vision of what was to come. She was said to deliver her oracles from a high wooden tower on the river Lippe, a tributary of the Rhine, because her holy powers were believed to be so potent that her direct contact with the ground might throw all nature out of joint. This tower would not have been unfamiliar in Viking times: A thousand years later, Viking seeresses were still delivering their oracles from a high platform. In 69 AD, during the Roman civil war that followed the suicide of Nero, Veleda took advantage of the fact that the Romans had turned upon themselves and launched a Germanic revolt against the empire. It was a ploy that nearly succeeded. Tacitus records that her loyal tribes people sacrificed captured Roman legionary soldiers to her, which indicates they counted her a goddess on earth. At the civil war's end, Veleda was the chief arbiter when an agreement was made between the Romans and the people of Cologne. But when order was once again restored, she continued to exhort her people to rebel against Rome. In 78 AD, the Emperor Vespasian sent two legions into her lands on the Lippe, solely for the purpose of taking this one woman hostage. By doing so, he managed to halt barbarian raids on the frontier without losing Roman lives. Veleda is only one of several powerful prophetesses mentioned by Roman historians. Ganna and Aurinia are two others, and still other seeresses are referred to anonymously as tribal wise women."

     To reference in WCS

     Reference: Women of the North

     Emily Venturi

     Venturi was mentioned in The New Godiva: A Dialogue; and; A Letter to the Internationa Convention of Women at Washington (1888) by Josephine Elizabeth Grey Butler (1828-1906). Venturi was possibly active in the "social purity" movement.

     To reference in WCS

164. Vestal Virgin

     Priestesses of the Goddess Vesta, identified with the home and the hearth, the six Vestals were selected childhood (maidens age 6 to 10) from prominent Roman families of patrician birth. Directed by a senior priestess in the rex sanrorum, and, hence, in service to the Pontifex Maximus', each Vestal served for 30 years, remaining celibate (upon penalty of death) before retiring. Among the most free and powerful women in Rome, their duties included preparing sacrifices, tending the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta, and safeguarding the wills of the rich, famous, and powerful of Rome. After retirement, although they were free to marry, most remained single. The Vestal Virgins priesthood ended in 394 A.D. with the suppression of pagan cults within the Roman empire.

     To reference in WCS

165. Victoria of England (1819-1901)

     Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1837-1901) and Empress of India (1876-1901). Politically conservative, devoted to her husband and children, Victoria became a symbol of the solidity of the British Empire. Victoria's 63-year reign was the longest in the history of England. Her descendants, including 40 grandchildren, married into almost every royal family of Europe.

     In her 1852 speech to the Syracuse Woman's Rights Convention, Gage said, "Although so much has been said of woman's unfitness for public life, it can be seen, from Semiramis to Victoria, that she has a peculiar fitness for governing."

     To reference in WCS
     To another reference in WCS
     To a third reference in WCS

     Reference: "Victoria (queen)," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation

166. Virgin Mary

     Mother of Jesus of Nazareth, the man whose teaching and death lead to the formation of the Christian religion. Some churches believe that Mary remained a virgin throughout her life in spite of becoming pregnant and bearing at least one child.

     In The Matriarchate; or, Woman in the Past, Gage writes, "The matriarchate existed long before the patriarchate; the mother was ruler in family and tribe, in State and Church, through long centuries where the father was unknown. Mother and children constituted the family, woman gave laws to the State, and in all early religions when a goddess and god are mentioned it was mother and son, the mother ever holding superior position. We find traces of this old cult in the adoration given the Virgin Mary, her supposed influence over her son, and in the dogma of the immaculate conception so recently promulgated as a vital tenet of the Roman Catholic Church. Except as a son and an inferior, man was not anciently recognized in either of those great institutions, family, Church, State; a father or a husband, as such, had no place in either the social or religious scheme."

167. Mercy Otis Warren

     Patriot, poet, playwright, historian. Sister of James Otis and wife of James Warren, president of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, Warren was an early advocate of independence from England. In her first work, a book of poems Poems, Dramatic and Miscellaneous (1790), she encouraged revolution. In her plays, The Adulateur (1772), The Defeat (1773) and The Group (1775), she again encouraged independence. Throughout the war, her home was a place where the leaders of the revolution gathered to relax and exchange ideas informally. In Her Observations on the New Constitution, and on the Federal Conventions (1788), Warren expressed her reservations about the proposed new American Constitution. Her most influential work, the 3 volume History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution (1805), is the only history of the American Revolutionary era written by one of its leading proponents.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 57-58)

     for another quote, see entries for Catharine Sawbridge Maccaulay and Bridget Graffort

     Reference: Davidson, p. 907-908

168. Helene Marie Weber

     French feminist who sent a letter to the 1850 Worcester Women's rights convention of 1850 advocating the use of "masculine attire." She had adopted "masculine attire" to conduct business on her family farm. When she finally visited America years later, Elizabeth Cady Stanton was impressed by the quality of her attire which was made of the finest materials and resembled a modern pants suit.

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67)

     Reference: Weatherford, American Suffragist, pp. 53-54

     Anne Webster

     19th century abolitionist, Buck has an Augusta Webster 1837-1894

     To Quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 65-66)

     Reference:

169. Anna Doyle Wheeler (1785 - after 1848)

     Irish feminist philosopher. A frequent contributor to periodicals, including Robert Owens Crisis, Wheeler always opposed religion and marriage (she had previously left an alcoholic husband). William Thomson, author of an Appeal of One-Half the Human Race, Women, against the pretensions of the other half, Men, to retain them in political, and thence in civil and domestic slavery (1825), dedicated the work to Anna Wheeler.

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 68), Gage wrote, "Also an "Appeal of Women," the joint work of Mrs. Wheeler and William Thomson - a strong and vigorous essay, in which woman's limitations under the law were tersely and pungently set forth and her political rights demanded. "

     Reference: Blain, p. 1156-1157

170. Emma Hart Willard (1787-1870)

     The first important female American educator and educator of women, Willard moved to give women a genuine college education, as opposed to the traditional finishing school education. In 1805, while continuing her studies in Hartford, Hart opened her first school, a Dame School in her parents home. Two years later, she left home to accept a teaching position at a girls' school in Middlebury, Vermont. Wedded in 1809, instant mother to 4 step-children, and soon mother of her own child, Willard's life changed when her nephew came to live with her family. He was a student at Middlebury College and she used his books to teach herself geometry, philosophy, and other subjects denied women. When her husband's career floundered, Willard opened another school in 1814. Although it was common for women to run schools, what was uncommon about Willard's school was its content and academic rigor. In 1819, Willard pioneered again by unsuccessfully petitioning the New York legislature for taxpayer support of education for girls. More enlightened residents of Troy, New York raised taxes to endow Willard's school. In 1821, she moved the school there and named it the Troy Female Seminary. Women were eager to learn and soon all classes were filled, despite the fact that her curriculum was more rigorous than that at many boys' schools. Courses included trigonometry, astronomy, chemistry, botany, physiology, geology, anatomy, history, and geography. Because she did not view education for women as a prelude to a career, she also required the usual finishing school courses and courses in home economics. Because school textbooks did not exist for several of her courses, she wrote the books herself. Anything but a feminist, the conservative Willard opposed woman's suffrage. She did, however, support women as public school teachers - because it was cheaper for the tax payer to hirer a woman than a man for the job.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 62-63 )

     Reference: Weatherford, p. 375-376

     Elizabeth Wilson

     Ohio, feminist theologian

     In Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 67), Gage wrote, "Elizabeth Wilson, of Ohio, published a scriptural view of woman's rights and duties far in advance of the generally received opinions. "

     Reference: Salem, Ohio 1850 Women's Rights Convention Prodeedings for a letter by Wilson.

171. Laura Rose Wolcott

     Formed the first woman's club in Milwaukee, medical doctor trained in Paris, suffragist

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

     Reference: Acquaintances Old and New among Reformers, Olympia Brown, 1911, publisher not given, pp. 103-104

172. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

     A political and feminist polemicist, as well as a novelist, Wollstonecraft's earliest feminist work wasThoughts on the Education of Daughters (1878) and her best known and extremely influential work is Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792). A strong supporter of the French Revolution, her interested spanned the entire range of contemporary political issues. Her complete, collected works have recently been reprinted by Ohio State University press in seven volumes.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 60)

     Reference: Todd, p. 728-730

     Women in Parliament

     in the reign of Henry III that four women took seats in Parliament, and in the reign of Edward I ten ladies were called to Parliament

173. Frances Wright (1795-1852)

     Lecturer, feminist, social reformer, anti-slavery activist. Frances Wright was a pioneer in many areas. She was the first woman to speak publicly from a podium in the United States, the first woman to advocate woman's inherent equality to men, the first to question the utility of religion and to denounce the power of the clergy. She was an early advocate of free public education, a pioneering anti-slavery activist and anti-racist advocate, as well as a social reformer. As a teenager, Wright wrote two plays Altdorf and A Few Days in Athens. Altdorf was performed in New York in 1819 while on a visit there from her native Scotland. Upon returning to England, she wrote about her trip to the United States in Views of Society and Manners in America (1820). Smitten with America, she returned in 1824 and officially became an American citizen in 1825. The wealthy heiress purchased land in Tennessee for a model communal plantation which she called "Nashoba" and where she planned to educate her slaves for freedom. Unfortunately, her ill-planned, underfunded, and understaffed experiment failed. Traveling as far west as St. Louis, Wright lectured throughout the east and midwest on the need for education for women and the need to free people's minds from the shackles of religion. In 1829, Wright opened the first Hall of Science, a place for lectures, meeting, a health clinic, and a bookstore selling works by Paine, Shelley, Godwin, and Richard Carlile's birth control tract, "Every Woman's Book." Pregnant, Wright married Phiquepal D'Arusmont in 1832 and bore his child shortly thereafter. Her marriage was an unhappy one. As was the custom of the day, upon marriage, all of Wright's wealth became her husbands to disperse as he saw fit. In 1844 she purchased a house in Cincinnati and sued him to regain her American properties. She divorced him and lost custody of her daughter. Although her daughter, Sylvia, became a Christian and saw her mother's newspaper Free Enquirer as "infidel trash," she nonetheless raised a marble monument to her mother whom she never understood after her Frances's death. Wright's letters and lectures were collected and reprinted in Life Letters and Lectures (1972) by Arno Press.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 61-62 )

     To reference in WCS
     To another reference in WCS

     Reference: Gaylor, p. 33 - 38

174. Martha Coffin Pelham Wright (1806-1875)

     Often overshadowed by her 13-years-older sister, Lucretia Coffin Mott, Quaker feminist Martha Wright was an abolitionist and woman's rights reformer in her own right. Leader of the New York women's rights and suffrage movements from the beginning (she was one of the planners of the Seneca Falls convention), with the support of her husband, Wright continued to be active in the women's rights movement throughout her life. President of numerous local, state, and national women's rights associations and conventions, she was also a good friend of and constant consultant to Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, becoming a founding member of both the Equal Rights Association in 1866 and the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869..

     Expelled from the Quaker when she married army captain Peter Pelham "out of meeting", Wright retained the characteristics Quaker traits of dignity, kindness, and simplicity although she came to have little regard for organized religion.

     In the April, 1879 issue of The National Citizen and Ballot Box article discussing the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, Gage wrote a detailed story about the activities of Lucretia Mott, Martha C. [Coffin] Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mary Ann McClintock, and Richard Hunt.

     Reference: Notable American Women, James, et. al., vol 3, pp. 684-685

     Dora Young

     To reference in WCS

175. Marie Elizabeth Zakrzewska (1829-1902)

     Trained in her native Germany as a midwife and experienced as an instructor of midwifery, Zakrzewska immigrated to America in 1853. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell arranged for Zakrzewska to attend Cleveland Medical College where she was among the first women in the country to obtain a medical degree. Returning to New York, Zakrzewska helped Blackwell build her new hospital. Adept at fundraising, Zakrzewska traveled to Philadelphia and Boston for Blackwell's hospital. Offered a teaching position at the New England Female Medical College in Boston, Zakrzewska moved to Boston and was outraged to discover that the school was little more than a place to train midwives. She lead the effort to create a new teaching hospital, founding the New England Hospital for Women and Children in 1862. Her school was of such a high caliber that after 1881, she only admitted women who had already earned an MD. She was also a founding member of the New England Woman's Club, one of the two original study clubs that would serve as models for the twentieth- century woman's club movement.

     To quote in Preceding Causes (Buhle and Buhle, p. 63)

     Reference: Weatherfod, p. 396

Non-witchcraft trials and tribulations of common women

I doubt that I'll be able to find additional information on these women beyond the information and their life stories that Gage provides us with.

Mrs. R. Bassman

To reference in WCS

Mrs. Cochrane

To reference in WCS

1. Jane Corran

   Who was Jenny Pipes? Jenny Pipes was the last woman in England to be ducked as a legalpunishment. (So far!) Also known as Jane Corran by virtue (if that’s the right word) of her marriage to John Corran, she was a member of the poor community of Leominster in the early 19th Century. She was just able to eke out a living independent of the workhouse but that was no thanks to him.

   To reference in WCS

   Mrs. Olive Davenport

   To reference in WCS

   Betty Harris

   To reference in WCS (I think I found the original document from which Gage took this case published on the Internet. It is Great Britain, Parlimentary Papers, 1842, vol XV, pp. 84 and Vol XVII, p. 108

   Unnamed wife of 'a man named Heferon'

   To reference in WCS

2. Margaret Hibbs

   To reference in WCS (I think I found the original document from which Gage took this case published on the Internet. It is Great Britain, Parlimentary Papers, 1842, vol XV, pp. 84 and Vol XVII, p. 108

3. Lady Frances Howard

   In the early seventeenth century, Lady Frances Howard, by marriage Countess of Essex, managed to get a nullity from her husband the Earl of Essex on grounds which were regarded at the times as somewhat peculiar. She claimed that the Earl was impotent towards her, but not with other women.

   Reference: Antonia Fraser, The Weaker Vessel, Mandarin 1994
   Extraordinary Popular Delusions And The Madness Of Crowds By Charles Mackay, Chapter 11 The Slow Poisoners

   To reference in WCS

4. Patience Keershaw

   To reference in WCS (I think I found the original document from which Gage took this case published on the Internet. It is Great Britain, Parlimentary Papers, 1842, vol XV, pp. 84 and Vol XVII, p. 108 at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1842womenminers.html

   Sarah Leeke

   To reference in WCS

5. Caroline Owens and Emily Spencer

   In the U.S. Supreme Court Miles v. United States 103 U.S. 304 (1880), the Supreme Court Case upheld anti-polygamy laws. Emily Spencer and Caroline Owens were principals in the case. See also FindLaw

   "Mrs." Waldegrave and afterward "Lady" Waldegrave

   To reference in WCS

   Caroline Wallis

   "Whereas, a Decree was pronounced in the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice on the 5th day of June, 1886, in the suit of Samuel Joseph Wallis versus Caroline Wallis, for the restitution of conjugal rights and for custody of the child, May Wallis, to the petitioner, the said Samuel Joseph Wallis."

   To reference in WCS

   Betsy Wardle

   To reference in WCS

Women Accused of or Tried for Witchcraft

(I doubt that I'll be able to find additional information on these women beyond the information and their lives stories that Gage provides us with, except for the people tried in the Salem Witchcraft Trials of 1692. Their stories are given in detail in Marion L. Starkey, The Devil in Massachusetts: A Modern Enquiry into the Salem Witch Trials, Anchor Books, 1949. It was still in print a few years ago when I bought my copy.)

Susan Chander, Ann Durant (of Drury) and Elizabeth Pacy

To reference in WCS

Margaret M___

To reference in WCS

1. Grace Sherwood

   To reference in WCS

   Grace Sherwood's Trial Records
   from The Colonial Virginian, An Address Delivered before the Geographical and Historical Society of Richmond College, October 13, 1891, by R. A. Brock, Secretary of the Virginia and of the Southern Historical Societies.
   'However liable the Virginian may have been to the charge of intdlerance, superstition seems not to have benighted his nature. His courts record but one instance of an arraignment for witchcraft. Upon the complaint of one Luke Hill and wife in 1795 Grace Sherwood was tried by the County Court of Princess Anne "on the suspicion of witchcraft." She was first searched by an able jury of ancient women" and then subjected to the water test-being cast into the river and "she swiming w'n therein and bound, contrary to custom," was again committed to ve common goal of ye county to be brought to a ffuture tryall there." ' quote taken from Collections of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society, Volume I, 1833, pages 69-78.

   Grace Sherwood was ducked in Lynnhaven Bay at Witch Duck. That's in Virginia Beach, about 40 miles from my home - and the road is still known as Witch Duck Road.

   Reference: Gage references Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Virginia. On pages 436-438 of said book, there is primary source information about this court case.

2. Annie Whittle (alias Chattox )

   In the Lancashire witch trials c. 1612, the accused included (1) Elizabeth Southern (Old Demdike) and her descendents daughter, Elizabeth Device (Squinting Lizzie) and Elizabeth's children, Allison and James and (2) Annie Whittle (Old Chattox, a poor'Widdow, about the age of Fourescoreyeares, or there-aboutes') and her daughter, Ann Redfern.

   To reference in WCS

   Salem Witchcraft Trials Victims

   Gage lists the following victims of the 1692 Salem Witchcraft trials by name. I've read about 1/5 of Charles Upham's Salem Witchcraft (one of Gage's references) and I think that book will provide a lot of information on these women.

   Briget Bishop
   Sarah Good
   Sarah Wilder
   Elizabeth Howe
   Susanna Martin
   Rebecca Nurse
   George Burroughs
   John Proctor
   George Jacobs
   John Willard
   Martha Carrier
   Martha Corey
   Mary Easty
   Alice Parker
   Ann Pudeator
   Margaret Scott
   Wilmit Reed
   Samuel Wordwell
   Mary Baker
   Giles Corey
   

   In addition, Dorcas Good, 3 or 4 year old daughter of Sarah Good, was imprisoned.

   Sarah Carrier, 7 year old daughter of Martha Carrier, was called on to testify against her mother.
   

   For details on two of the women, see also the Biographical Dictionary entries for Mary Osgood and Rebecca Nurse

   To reference in WCS

References for Biographical dictionary for Gage Website

      Margaret Alic, 1986, Hypatia's Heritage: A History of Women in Science from Antiquity through the Nineteenth Century, Beacon Press

      Carol Ruth Berkin and Mary Beth Norton, 1979, Women of America: A History, Houghton Mifflin

      Louise Bernikow, 1997, The American Women's Almanac: An Inspiring and Irreverent Women's History, Berkley Books

      Ira V. Brown, Mary Grew: Abolitionist and Feminist (1813-1896), Selingsgrove, Susquehanna University press, 1991, p. 13

      Lois Stiles Edgerly, 1994, Women's Words, Women's Stories, An American Daybook, Tilbury House

      Virginia Blain, Isobel Grundy, Patricia Clements, 1990, The Feminist Companion to Literature in English: Women Writers from the Middle Ages to the Present, Yale University Press

      Larry Ceplair, 1989, The Public Years of Sarah and Angelina Grimke, Selected Writings, 1835-1839, Columbia University Press

      Claire Buck, 1992, Women's Guide to Literature Throughout the World from Sappho to Atwood, Bloomsbury Publishing

      Mary Jo Buhle and Paul Buhle (eds.), 1978, The Concise History fo Woman suffrage, Selections from the Classic Work of Stanton, Anthony, Gage, and Harper, U. of Illinois Press

      Charles E. Claghorn, 1991, Women Patriots of the American Revolutions, a biographical - dictionary, Scarecrow Press

      Cathy N. Davidson and Linda Wagner-Martin, 1995, The Oxford Companion to Women's Writing in the United States, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford

      Elizabeth Ellet, Women of the American Revolution (3 volumes), Corner House 1980 reprint of 1848 work

      Annie Laurie Gaylor, 1997, Women Without Superstition: "No Gods - No Masters" The Collected Writings of Women Freethinkers of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Freedom From Religion Foundation

      Beverly E. Golemba, Lesser Known Women: A Biographical Dictionary, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992

      Karen Greenspan, 1996, The Timetables of Women's History: A Chronology of the Most Important People and Events in Women's History, Simon and Schuster

      Sarah Josepha Hale, Woman's Record, 1855, reprinted in 1970 by Source Books Press [NY]

      Joan Hoff, 1991, Law Gender and Injustice: A Legal History of US Women, New York University Press

      Edward T. Jones, Janet Wilson James, Paul S. Boyer, Notable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary 1607-1950, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971

      Linda K. Kerber, 1997, Toward an Intellectual History of Women, University of North Carolina Press

      Ernest Legouve, The Moral History of Women, Rudd and Carleton, Paris, 1860

      Gerda Lerner, 1994, The Creation of Feminist Consciousness, Oxford University Press

      Robert McHenry, Famous American Women: A Biographical Dictionary from Colonial Times to the Present, Dover Pubs., NY, 1980

      Melaine Parry, Larousse Dictionary of Women, Larousse, 1996

      Mary Plimpton, Mary Dyer, Biography of a Rebel Quaker, Branden Publishing Co., Boston, 1994

      Merriam-Webster, Webster's Dictionary of American Women, Merriam-Webster, 1996

      Joanne Shattock, 1993, The Oxford Guide to British Women Writers, Oxford University Press

      Barbara Miller Solomon, 1985, In the Company of Educated Women, Yale University Press

      Samia Spencer, 1984, French Women and the Age of Enlightenment, Indiana University Press

      Dale Spender, 1982, Women of Ideas and What Men Have Done to Them, Pandora

      Atumn Stanley, 1995, Mothers and Daughters of Inventions: Notes for a Revised History of Technology, Rutgers University Press

      Yuri Suhl, 1990, Ernestine L. Rose, The life story of a unique activist of the 19th century, Biblio Press

      Jessica Amanda Salmonson, 1991, The Encyclopedia of Amazons: Women Warriors from Antiquity to the Modern Era, Anchor Books

      Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Eighty Years & More: Reminiscences 1815-1897, 1993, Northeastern University Press

      Janet Todd, 1989, British Women Writers: A Critical Reference Edition, Continuum, New York

      Janet Todd (2), 1987, A Dictionary of British and American Women Writers 1660-1800, Rowman and Littlefield, Totowa, NJ

      Sally Roesch Wagner, 1988, A Time of Protest, Suffragists Challenge the Republic: 1870-1877, Sky Carrier Press

      Doris Weatherford, 1994, American Women's History, An A to Z of People, Organizations, Issues, and Events, Prentise Hall

      Doris Weatherford, A History of American Suffragist Movement, ABC-CLIO, 1998

      Katharina M. Wilson, 1991, An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers, (vol 1: A-K) and (vol 2: L-Z), Garland Publishing Company, New York and London

      Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation, various entries

 2 entries in Blain under Cowper